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Table of contents
Chapter 1: Etherification of glycerol with alcohols
1. Glycerol
1.1. Importance of glycerol
1.2. Problem of glycerol over-production
2. Etherification of glycerol with alcohols
3. Catalytic etherification of glycerol with tert-butanol
4. Acid catalysts for the etherification of glycerol with tert-butyl alcohol
1. Fundamentals of the most common characterization techniques of zeolites and carbocatalysts
1.1. X-ray diffraction, XRD
1.2. Adsorption- desorption of N2
1.2.1. Isotherm classification
1.2.2. Specific Surface – BET surface
1.2.3. Pore volume
1.3. Scanning electron microscopy, SEM
1.4. Transmission electron microscopy, TEM
1.5. X fluorescence spectrometry, XRF
1.6. Inductively coupled plasma, ICP
1.7. Solid state nuclear magnetic resonance 27Al, NMR
1.8. IR (TOT band) infrared spectroscopy band structure
1.9. Thermodesorption of pyridine at 423 K followed by IR
1.10. Raman spectroscopy, RAMAN
1.11. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, XPS
1.12. Elemental analysis, EA
1.13. Boehm titration
1.14. Thermogravimetric analysis, TGA
1. Zeolites
1.1. Structure
1.2. Acidity
1.2.1. Nature of the acid sites
1.2.2. Acid sites density
1.2.3. Acid sites strength
1.2.3.1. Ionic exchange degree
1.2.3.2. [T-O-T] bond angle
1.2.3.3. Metallosilicates
1.2.3.4. Electrostatic environment
1.2.3.5. Interaction with Lewis sites
1.2.4. Location of the acid sites
1.3. Shape selectivity
1.3.1. Reactant shape selectivity
1.3.2. Transition state shape selectivity
1.3.3. Product shape selectivity
1.4. Synthesis of zeolites
1.4.1. Silicon source
1.4.2. Aluminum source
1.4.3. Mineralizing agent
1.4.4. Structure directing agents (SDA)
1.5. Synthesis of hierarchical zeolites
1.5.1. Dealumination
1.5.2. Desilication
1.6. Zeolites in nanocrystals and their synthesis
1.6.2. Synthesis from strongly alkaline gels
1.6.3. Alternative methods
2. Zeolites as catalysts in the etherification of glycerol with tert-butyl alcohol
5.1. Chemicals and catalysts
5.2. Characterization
5.2.1. Chemical composition
5.2.2. Composition of the surface
5.2.3. Determination of the Si/Al ratio of the zeolite framework
5.2.4. Determination of the framework formula
5.2.5. Structural analysis
5.2.6. Morphology
5.2.7. Textural properties
5.2.8. Acidity
5.3. Glycerol etherification with tert-butyl alcohol
5.3.1. Catalyst regeneration and catalytic recycling
6.1. Characterization of catalysts
6.1.1. Chemical composition and Si/Al ratio
6.1.2. Structural results of zeolites
6.1.3. Morphology of the zeolites
6.1.4. Textural results of zeolites
6.1.5. Acidity of the catalysts
6.2. Glycerol etherification with tert-butyl alcohol
6.2.1. Thermodynamic analysis of reaction equilibrium
6.2.2. Kinetic model
6.2.3. Activity and stability
6.2.4. Selectivity
6.2.5. Regeneration
7. Conclusion
1. The carbon
1.1. Allotropic forms of carbon
2. Graphene
2.1. Methods of obtaining graphene
2.1.1. Obtaining graphene from graphite oxide
2.1.2. Chemical reduction of graphene oxide
2.1.3. Functionalization of graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide
3. Graphene oxide as a catalyst
4. Motivation of the study of graphene oxide in the etherification of glycerol with tert-butyl alcohol
5. Objective of the use of graphene oxide in the etherification of glycerol with tert-butyl alcohol
6. Experimental section
6.1. Chemical and catalysts
6.2. Characterization
6.2.1. Textural properties
6.2.2. Chemical composition
6.2.3. Acid properties
6.3. Etherification of glycerol with tert-butyl alcohol and analysis
7. Results and discussion
7.1. Characterization of catalysts
7.1.1. Textural properties
7.1.2. Elemental Analysis
7.1.3. Acid properties
7.2. Etherification of glycerol with tert-butyl alcohol
7.2.1. Kinetic model
7.2.2. Activity
7.2.3. Selectivity
7.2.4. Stability
8. Conclusion
