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Table of contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Motivation of the Present Work
1.3 This Thesis
1.4 The Philippines
1.5 The Philippine Volcanoes
1.5.1 Spatial Distribution of Philippine Volcanoes
1.5.2 Morphometry and Evolution of Philippine Volcanoes
1.5.3 Evolution
2 Controls and emplacement of the Iriga DAD
2.1 Abstract
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Regional Setting
2.4 Mt Iriga
2.5 Methods and Terms
2.6 Mt Iriga Morphology
2.6.1 Iriga DAD1 Geometry, Structure, and Morphology
2.6.2 Iriga DAD1 Lithology and Stratigraphy
2.6.3 Buhi DAD2 Geometry, Structure, and Morphology
2.6.4 Buhi DAD2 Lithology and Stratigraphy
2.7 Discussion
2.7.1 Comparison of the Iriga DAD1 and Buhi DAD2
2.7.2 Collapse Mechanism
2.7.3 Mode of Transport
2.7.4 Substrate Incorporation
2.7.5 Mobility
2.8 Conclusions
3 Hummocks: how they form and how they evolve
3.1 Abstract
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Methodology
3.3.1 Analogue Models
3.3.2 Model Set-Up and Parameters
3.3.3 Scaling
3.4 Results
x Contents
3.4.1 Standard Experiment
3.4.2 Model Avalanche Class
3.4.3 Surface Morphology and Structures
3.4.4 Plan View Shape
3.4.5 Subsurface Deformation
3.4.6 Hummocks
3.4.7 Sequence of Events
3.5 Discussion
3.5.1 Avalanche Characteristics
3.5.2 Hummock Description
3.5.3 Avalanche Stages and Hummock Formation
3.5.4 Structural Models: Layers and Structural Interface
3.6 Conclusions
4 The anatomy of avalanche hummocks
4.1 Abstract
4.2 Introduction
4.2.1 Hummock Interpretations
4.2.2 Hummock Types
4.2.3 Iriga volcano and her DADs
4.2.4 Objectives
4.3 Methodology
4.4 Results
4.4.1 Hummock Exploration and Accounting
4.4.2 Field Description
4.5 Discussion
4.6 Conclusions
5 The development of structures in avalanches
5.1 Abstract
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Model Set-up
5.4 Scaling
5.5 Reproducibility, Model Limitation, Initiation
5.6 Results
5.6.1 The Curved Ramp Experiments: Set 1
5.6.2 The Inclined Straight Ramp Experiments: Set 2
5.6.3 Natural Debris Avalanche Deposits
5.7 Discussion
5.7.1 Morphology and Structures in Curved- and Straight- Based Analogue Slides
5.7.2 Development of Structures and Evolution of Morphology in Large Debris Slides
5.7.3 Implications of Analogue Morphology and Structure on Natural Prototypes
5.8 Conclusions
6 Structural and morphological mapping of DAD
6.1 Abstract
6.2 Introduction
6.2.1 Structures and Morphological Features in Analogue and Natural DAD
6.2.2 Remote Sensing and GIS in Mapping DAD
6.2.3 Objectives and Limitations
6.3 Study Sites
6.3.1 Cerro Pular-Pajonales (Chile-Argentina)
6.3.2 Süphan Dağı (Turkey)
6.3.3 Tacna (Peru)
6.4 Methodology
6.4.1 Data Gathering and building the GIS
6.4.2 Topographic Modelling: SRTM DEM and ASTER GDEM139
6.4.3 Colour Composites: Landsat ETM+
6.4.4 RS and GIS Interpretation and Surface Mapping
6.5 Results
6.5.1 Cerro Pular-Pajonales
6.5.2 Süphan Dağı
6.5.3 Tacna
6.6 Dynamics and Kinematics
6.6.1 Cerro Pular-Pajonales
6.6.2 Süphan Dağı
6.6.3 Tacna
6.7 Conclusion
7 Summary and future work
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Philippine Volcanoes
7.3 Iriga volcano (Philippines) and her 2 DAD
7.4 Hummocks: How They Form, What They Mean, and Anatomy
7.5 Structures in Long-Runout Avalanches and Large Landslides
7.6 Mapping Remote DAD
7.7 Future Work
