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Advantages and disadvantages of transformational leadership
According to Kuye (2010:266-267), the transformational leadership style brings the following advantages: the charisma in leadership provides vision and sense of mission, instils pride, gains respect and trust; the inspiration, ensures that higher expectations with regard to performance are clearly communicated; transformational leadership promotes intelligence, rationality and careful problem analysis and solving; and leaders tend to give personal attention to subordinates, treat each employee individually and often provide coaching and advice.
Nonetheless, the transformational leadership style has the following disadvantages: when leaders fail to inspire the subordinates, the planned task is destined to fail, despite the efforts taken by a leader to transform the situation; and communication breakdown caused by rhetoric would ensure failure of the vision that the leader holds; this culminates in subordinates being confused about which tasks to perform.
Other models and concepts of transformational leadership
Tichy and Devanna’s (1986) concept of transformational leadership proposes that transformational leaders are visionaries, see themselves as change agents, display courage in the face of resistance and risk, emphasise the need for motivation, empowerment and trust, are driven by strong values, see mistakes, errors and failures as learning opportunities, and cope with complexity, uncertainty and ambiguity (Tichy & Devanna, 1986). This model, however, is based on observations of only 14 business leaders in action (Gill, 2006:53).
Raffery and Griffin (2004) propose another variation that they determined empirically, with the following five dimensions of transformational leadership: vision (expressing and idealised picture of the future based around organisational values); inspirational communication (expressing positive and encouraging messages about the organisation, and making statements that build motivation and confidence); intellectual stimulation (enhancing employees’ interest in and awareness of problems, and increasing their ability to think about problems in new ways); supportive leadership (expressing concern for followers and taking account of their individual needs); and personal recognition (providing rewards such as praise and acknowledging effort for achievement of specified goals).
Charismatic leadership
Outstanding leaders are often perceived as charismatic: they attract and inspire followers. Charismatic leadership is found at all levels in the organisation, though most frequently at the top, Bass (1992) says, and it is associated, with greater trust in leaders and achievement among followers. The charismatic leader ‘weaves a spell’ outside the organisation too, attracting shareholders and investment in troubled times, according to research by Francis Flynn and Barry Staw (2004). David Waldman et al. (2001), however, in a study of senior managers in Fortune 500 companies in the United States, found that charismatic leadership is associated with the net profit margin, but only under conditions of environmental uncertainty. Charismatic leadership appears to be dysfunctional in predictable conditions, perhaps because it may generate unnecessary change.
Max Weber (1864-1920), the German sociologist, wrote the classic on charisma (Roth & Wittich, 1968). He saw charisma as primarily a social relationship between leader and follower resulting from extraordinary personal qualities but which requires continual validation: followers’ perception of the leader’s “devotion to … exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character (and) the normative patterns of order revealed or ordained by him”. Weber saw charisma as a process of influence and commitment that arises in opposition to traditional bureaucracy.
A more contemporary view is that charisma is not something that is possessed by a leader but a consequence of the relationship between leader and followers (House, 1977:189-207; Conger & Kanungo, 1987; Shamir et al., 1993). Followers appear to be attracted to different types of leaders, and followers’ work values – favouring participation, security and extrinsic rewards – contribute to their leadership preferences (Ehrhart & Klein, 2001). Ciulla (1999) comments on charismatic leadership and values: “the values of charismatic leaders shape the organisation, but in some cases these values do not live when the charismatic leader is gone.”
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL OVERVIEW
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Critical eras in the history of the DRC
1.3 Civil service in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
1.4 Chapters delineation
1.5 Conclusion
CHAPTER TWO: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Scientific research methods
2.3 Objectives of the study
2.4 Significance of the study
2.5 Statement of the problem
2.6 Research design
2.7 Data collection techniques
2.8 Limitations and delimitation of the study
2.9 Reliability and validity of the study
2.10 Conclusion
CHAPTER THREE: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Conceptual framework
3.3 Management functions
3.4 Theories of leadership
3.5 Leadership functions
3.6 Characteristics of leaders
3.7 Leadership in the public sector
3.8 Governance in the context of public administration
3.9 Global experience of leadership
3.10 Leadership and governance in the African context
3.11 Conclusion
CHAPTER FOUR: A CASE STUDY ON LEADERSHIP AND GOVERNANCE ISSUES IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Leadership challenges in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
4.3 Governance imperatives in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS OF THE CASES: BRAZIL AND BOTSWANA
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Leadership and governance in Brazil
5.3 Leadership and governance in Botswana: The African miracle
5.4 A framework for leadership development
5.5 Conclusion
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Synopsis of chapters
6.3 Findings and recommendations
6.4 Conclusion
6.5 Future research
BIBLIOGRAPHY
