Challenges of HIV and AIDS in Mbeya, Tanzania

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CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW ON NARRATIVE APPROACHES AND PRACTICAL THEOLOGY

Literature reviews are “studies that provide an overview of scholarship in a certain discipline through an analysis of trends and debates” (Mouton 2001: 179). It is also noted that literature review “involves the identification and analysis of information resources and/or literature related to one’s research project” (Kaniki 2006:19).
This chapter reviews different literatures, which are relevant to the study. It is the study which has been done in this field of study by other scholars. Different theories are explored and examined for the sake of building up the thesis statement and objectives which have been set up in this research. It is the researcher’s aim to be well structured and systematic in presenting this literature review as it has been asserted that, “a literature review should be organized around a particular theme, and is written from the perspective or standpoint of the reviewer” (Kaniki 2006: 21).
This research will limit itself to the theories which different scholars in psychology, sociology and theology have discussed in detail in other research. This particular study will only discuss these theories for the focus of the researcher’s objectives. All in all this study will answer the proposed questions on what some of the theories are which other scholars have been using in such a particular study. What models have they been following in developing their theories? From the background which has been laid down in the preceding chapter, this chapter will also survey different and various literatures which are necessary and relevant to this study on a narrative approach in pastoral counseling with OVC in Mbeya, Tanzania.
Therefore, it is my aim in this particular chapter to survey different theories on narratives and other related subjects from various fields, especially within the subjects under human sciences such as sociology, psychology, and theology. Ultimately this literature survey is hopefully to be integrated and applied specifically in pastoral counseling in the practical theology area in Tanzania to fit with the objectives under this study.

Historical perspectives on the study

Thus far there are no direct parallel works in this area, especially as it concerns the narrative approach integrated with pastoral counseling for OVC in the context of Mbeya, Tanzania. I have also found that there is relatively little written on pastoral counseling to OVC in the African context and even less written in the Tanzanian context in particular. But there is some research on pastoral counseling and HIV and AIDS in which OVC are mentioned at times.
On the study of a narrative approach in pastoral counseling with OVC in the context of Mbeya in Tanzania, there is no particular literature that has written on it. It is my aim to use different literatures on a narrative approach and integrate them to prove my thesis statement which examines and analyses the narratives in pastoral counseling with OVC in Mbeya, Tanzania. I will also use literature from the field of pastoral theology, particularly on counselling, which is my field, to make a case on a narrative approach in working with OVC in Tanzania.
The study below will extensively show the background and development of a narrative approach in pastoral counseling and its application theologically. General understandings of theories and themes under study will also be explored in detail.

Prominent theories, definitions, and challenges to theories and approach

There have been prominent theorists in theology, psychology, sociology, philosophy and other fields which sometimes differ in theory, definition, approach and use of technical terms used in counseling. These challenges and approaches will be examined in the following subtitles. All these subjects or subtitles are relevant and very crucial to the research topic which the author is going to examine for the objectives laid down. Therefore, the following subtitles need to be taken into careful consideration.

Practical theology and/or pastoral theology

Theology as a discipline has several branches. Practical theology is one of these branches. The term itself has been a complex of subjects for many years till now. It is not my intention to go into details of its historical development. There are several scholars who use the term “practical theology” as synonymous with the term “pastoral theology”, but some scholars differentiate between them (see Swinton & Mowat 2006; also in Ramsay ed 2004).
What is practical theology? What is the difference between practical theology and pastoral theology? Let us look in general at the essence of practical theology and its place in this study. Practical theology is a theology of faith in action through reading, understanding, and applying the Gospel of Jesus Christ. This should not mislead others to understand the term “practical” in opposition to the term “theoretical”. Practical theology deals with matters of life that are applicable, practiced, acted and performed. In agreement with the statement above, it is noted that, “practical theology deals with God’s activity through the ministry of human beings” (Heitink 1999: 7). Heitink understands practical theology as a theological theory of action (ie theory and praxis) (1999: 151-154).
Practical theology has been defined, translated, and used or applied in a wider sense than ever before. When it comes to the term “pastoral theology”, some have preferred to use the term as “contextual theology” or “public theology”, which comes with its style of common or public interest (ie resisting, empowering, and liberating) (Miller-McLemore 2004: 62; Ramsay 2004: 157). This is because pastoral theology deals with people’s lives and their daily challenges and experiences in the community. Pastoral theology is thus defined as follows, Pastoral theology as other theologies such as systematic theology, biblical theology, and others, is one of the branches in the field of theology. Pastoral theology deals with theories and practices in the life of individual people and the church as a whole for the betterment of theology and its tasks. Pastoral theology is not static but it is dynamic whereby it can be renamed, changed, analyzed, criticized, modified, and recreated. Pastoral theology looks for what is best and beneficial for individuals as well as for groups. Pastoral theology looks for the life of the people in the ways that are more practical and real, the life that can be lived for the common good of the society and the whole universe. The goal of pastoral theology is to heal, sustain, guide, comfort, and liberate for the purpose of living the life that is whole in the universe (cf Ramsay 2004: 15).
Practical theology means that the theology is practical as well as theoretical in its content and intent. This is the theology which is done in practice. The theory of practical theology relies more on its practices which include pastoral care and counseling, visitation of the sick and other disabled people and prisoners and all other individuals or groups who are in need and are suffering from different challenges of life.
Practical theology and pastoral theology relate to each other. Practical theology takes a bigger and wider view than pastoral theology. We can say that pastoral theology is within the practical theology realm. Pastoral theology is more specific and limited in its application than practical theology. Practical theology does not limit itself to pastoral issues in church context alone, it is more than that. It involves other activities that can be done even by lay people in different contexts and backgrounds. These two terms are sometimes very difficult to differentiate, they can be used alternatively.15
Practical theology as contextual is the theology from below, from the people at grassroots level. This is the theology which needs to be applied in the context where we are doing theology and pastoral counseling, in the African context, the context of marginalized people, and to the people who are falling under the great risk of poverty, homelessness, sicknesses, and other social factors. I concur with Bosch in Morkel (2002) who summarizes the epistemology that informs contextual theology as follows a suspicion that western science, philosophy and theology were designed to serve the interest of the west;
• a refusal to endorse the world as static, as something that only has to be explained, but rather as something that has to be changed;
• a commitment as the first act of theology and then specifically commitment to the poor and marginalized;
• the notion that theology can only be done with those who suffer;
• an emphasis on doing theology since doing is more important than knowing or speaking (hermeneutics of the deed), and
• the notion that hermeneutic circulation starts with praxis or experience, and shifts to reflection on theory with an inter-subjective relationship between the two (Morkel 2002: 26-27).
From the above description of practical theology Osmer (2008) states that the task of practical theology is to interpret and respond to issues happening in people’s lives. Osmer (2008: 4) gives the four core tasks of practical theological interpretation:
• The descriptive-empirical task. Gathering information that helps us discern patterns and dynamics in particular episodes, situations, or contexts.
• The interpretive task. Drawing on theories of the arts and sciences to better understand and explain why these patterns and dynamics are occurring.
• The normative task. Using theological concepts to interpret particular episodes, situations, or contexts, constructing ethical norms to guide our responses, and learning from “good practice.”
• The pragmatic task. Determining strategies of action that will influence situations in ways that are desirable and entering into a reflective conversation with the “talk back” emerging when they are enacted.
This understanding and interpretation of practical theology explains how much it is integrated in its approach. The process of interpretation is integrative, broader, interconnected, contextual, open and dynamic. Practical theology is pluralistic and integral with other fields such as arts and social sciences. “It is not self-enclosed” (Osmer 2008: 240).
The Gospel of Jesus Christ must be understood and applied to our daily living, critically, practically and contextually. That means we will understand the Gospel and the Christian tradition much better if we apply it to our African traditions and customs, which are our daily living experiences. It is the way we live as human beings in relation to what we always have and all that God reveals to us, sometimes in ways we cannot even imagine. This is what is known as the “faith seeking understanding” where people ought to be questioning, challenging, and seeking new things they cannot understand at the time, especially when it comes to the stories people read from the gospels and other biblical stories.
In this thesis my approach to practical theology will be more narrative hermeneutical as has been explained by theologians such as Charles Gerkin in his books, The living human document (1984) and Widening the horizons (1986) and Daniel Louw in his book A pastoral hermeneutics of care and encounter: A theological design for a basic theory, anthropology, method and therapy (1998, 2003). People live in a story, but in relationship with the story of God. These stories are interpreted and reflected to find an alternative story that will bring meaning through the process of pastoral hermeneutics. Hermeneutics is the way of understanding and interpreting a human being. These hermeneutics must transcend to understand human beings in the particular context of the person and his/her cultural surroundings.

African Christian theology

All these definitions and explanations of theology and practical theology in particular are primarily based on a western kind of understanding. As an African theologian I am obliged to ensure that we use and apply this knowledge to fit in our own context of Africa. What we object to in western theology as Setiloane (1986:49) says is “the accretion of western civilization and culture which have come to be considered as inseparably part and parcel of Christianity” as it has been elaborated by All African Council of Churches Assembly (further: AACC) that, “by African theology we mean a theology which is based on the biblical faith and speaks to the African’s soul … It is expressed in the categories of thought which arise out of the philosophy and worldview of Africans” (Setiloane 1986: 49).
Our faith should be moulded in our own way of living through the Gospel of Jesus Christ. African theology should be rooted in the life and experience of Africans’ way of living (ie norms, culture, customs and traditions). The African theology bases its theory in the concept of utu in Kiswahili or ubuntu in Zulu. It is the concept which in English lacks a good translation, which is defined as “humanity”. But in Kiswahili or Zulu language, utu is more than just humanity, it is dignity. The African worldview of a human person lies not in individuation but in relatedness. The human person lives in the community of hospitality and relationships, and this is the African view of a “person” (Magesa 2004: 177-180).
The African perspective on theology bases its understanding on how people live with God, with each other, and with all the creation in the world (cosmos). Most of the African theological scholars and Christians emphasize in their theology health, healing, (Ma Mpolo 1990: 12-13, cf Magesa 2004: 94) and liberation (Mugambi 1995 cf Mugambi 2003: 61-67). From an African perspective life is both sacred and secular, that is why in African context you find no contradictions or separation between the two (Kunene 1992 cf Mbiti 1989). In African perspective relationship with the whole cosmos is more important than anything else. Harmony with the forces in the cosmos is the crucial thing. The holistic life is the goal of humanity in the community where every human being is seen to belong to the society where all people belong and value each other. From this kind of relationship and life, healing happens in the society.
This study is all about practical theology in the African context (ie contextual approach). This is the core and the field of my specialization in this department of practical theology. A narrative approach is integrated with practical theology so as to bring this study to the aims and objectives which have been intended. Within narrative approaches we find valuable essence that if translated and applied properly, can enrich the ministry of pastoral care and counseling with its focus or base in practical theology. As we observe and interpret our daily Christian living and experiences, we try to live the life that God has intended for every one of us, the life of hope and wholeness.
The next subtopic goes much deeper into an understanding of the theology of narrative theology in the African context.

African contextual narrative theology

African narrative theology is the term which goes deep into the African ways of understanding the Bible in their own background and context. It is what many African theologians have called the “contextualization or inculturation” of the African theology (Magesa 2004, Mugambi 2003).
The continent of Africa and its people have passed the journey of life with many difficulties and problems. It is the continent which has experienced and gone through the slave trade, colonialism, neo-colonialism, imperialism, civil and ethnic wars. It is the continent which has been exploited with its resources. Economically, Africa is the poorest continent and which has been most stricken with the HIV and AIDS pandemic and with other diseases such as malaria. It is the continent where most of its leaders are corrupt and have no direction for their country and people. It is the continent which needs to liberate itself from the economical, political, social, and religious problems.
The church has the responsibility to make sure that its people are being freed from all those problems that Africa is facing. They need to address issues related to all aspects of life. It is in this oppression and the brokenness of Africans where the theologians need to find their own means of acquiring true freedom in political, social, economical, and religious life.
Africans, and especially Christians, need to liberate themselves from those bondages they have experienced in history and are still experiencing in other forms. The first place to start with is understanding themselves, who they are and recognizing the real problems they are facing. Liberation theology is trying to help African Christians (the church) and others who experience the same kind of bondage to come to true freedom in all aspects of life. Liberation is one of the ways of making the Gospel at home in Africa, it is the method of inculturation or the theology of inculturation. Mugambi quoting from Joseph Healey and Donald Sybertz who cite from Justin Ukpong observes that, The theologian’s task consists in re-thinking and re-expressing the original Christian message in an African cultural milieu. It is the task of confronting the Christian faith and African culture. In this process there is interpretation of both… There is integration of faith and culture and from it is born a new theological expression that is African and Christian (Mugambi 2003: 73).
In the minds of African people it is very difficult to separate in life between the sacred and the secular. They are connected to each other; there must be an interaction between the two. This is not syncretism; it is a relationship that is very important in the African theology of inculturation. It is the way the African mind works as a cyclical mode of life, which is the holistic life. For the Africans secular life is also a sacred life. As one has pointed out that, “African religion and culture contain seeds of God’s Word” (Healey & Sybertz 2005: 50). That means African traditions and gospels can relate to each other. It is further pointed out that God’s grace cannot 52 be limited to human understanding. Whether it is religion or culture, God’s grace can be seen and manifested. But what is also required is the new understanding of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, which comes with new light and understanding God’s grace apart from our preconceived ideas and theories, this is God’s work alone (Healey & Sybertz 2005: 51).
Inculturation and contextualization are the way of understanding the Bible in our African context and through the resources (ie symbols, images, traditions) that are within our means. African Christian theologians imply several terms that are really the ways to true freedom. These terms are such as liberation theology, reconstruction theology, black theology and narrative theology. All these theologies try to make the Christian theology at home in Africa.
In this section I will describe narrative theology in general. This will guide us to see its importance in practical theology and particularly in the process of pastoral counseling with OVC.
African narrative theology involves cultural practices and experiences which are mostly passed through orally, such as stories, proverbs, myths, songs, play, riddles and cultural symbols. African narrative theology is one of the ways to inculturation in which the Gospel is being translated and understood in its cultural context. It is pointed out that,
One type of inculturation theology is an African narrative theology of inculturation. The starting point is African culture, but specifically African oral literature and the wide range of narrative and oral forms: proverbs, sayings, riddles, stories, myths, plays and songs explained in their historical and cultural contexts. Anne Nasimiyu-Wasike states: “The oral literature of the African people is their unwritten Bible. This religious wisdom is found in African idioms, wise sayings, legends, myths, stories, proverbs and oral history” (Healey & Sybertz 2005: 28).
Proverbs, riddles, metaphors and sayings are very common in everyday speech in Tanzania and in Africa in general. There is a great potential in using African proverbs in our teaching, preaching, and in counseling for the followers of Christ. Addo says, “proverbs express the time-tried wisdom of the elders and contain the traditions of the elders” (Addo 2006).
In summary about narrative theology according to the book of Healey and Sybertz, I must say and emphasize, that a narrative approach is one of the ways to understand people’s lives according to their context. African narrative theology with all its components helps people to grow in physical and spiritual maturity. A narrative approach speaks to the lives of people they are living in every day. It is all about relationships among people, as some Kiswahili proverbs say, Asiyekula na wenzake ni mchawi (who does not eat with his/her friends is a witch), and Kidole kimoja hakivunji chawa (one finger does not kill a louse). All these proverbs speak of relationships and unity among the community. Narrative approach is one of the ways to make the African theology more at home; it is what people call the theology of inculturation. Therefore, narrative approach finds a home in the African soil. The theology of inculturation becomes very effective in helping people to move from different kinds of problems and challenges of life. A narrative approach eventually helps people to become more mature and live a life that is more meaningful, the life that leads to wholeness.
In this research thesis the author is trying to examine the problem of HIV and AIDS in Tanzanian context and its impact on the society. Through a narrative approach I hope that the OVC will be helped to cope with their problems. Narrative methods have some good Christian potential resources that are very helpful in making children resilient. A narrative approach is what they can call an African theology from below, from African local people (known within practical theology as contextual approach). It is a theology from the grassroots. Therefore, what I will be doing in this thesis is to theologize or do theology that is based on African narratives. This is a praxis theology, a practical theology which the people have really experienced in their daily lives and they continue telling their narratives from one generation to another.
Since I am doing my field research concerning the children it is also important to understand the theology of children, or more specifically, the children’s spirituality. In the next subtopic I am going to discuss the ways in which children understand God and their surroundings. In general, suffice to say that every child in his/her inner being in one way or another brings the story which he/she connects to the Higher Being, God. Therefore, it is assumed that every child has a spiritual story in him/her regardless of the background.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgment
Abstract
Abbreviations
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Rationale of the study
1.2 Background of the research
1.3 Problem statement
1.4 The thesis statement
1.5 Purpose of the study
1.6 Objectives of the study
1.7 Research questions
1.8 Scope and limitation of the study
1.9 Definition of key terms
1.10 Outline of the thesis
CHAPTER TWO CONTEXT OF THE STUDY (BACKGROUND)
2.1 An overview of the geographical area studied, Mbeya, Tanzania
2.2 The HIV and AIDS pandemic in Tanzania
2.3 The impact of HIV and AIDS in Tanzania
2.4 HIV/AIDS in relation to human sexuality
2.5 Challenges of HIV and AIDS in Mbeya, Tanzania
2.6 Children living with HIV and AIDS in Mbeya
2.7 Orphans in Mbeya
2.8 HIV/AIDS and poverty in Mbeya
2.9 The fight against HIV and AIDS in Tanzania
2.10 Organization Involved
2.11 Pastoral ministry (counseling) to children in Mbeya
2.12 Summary of the chapter
CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW ON NARRATIVE APPROACHES AND PRACTICAL THEOLOGY
3.1 Historical perspectives on the study
3.2 Prominent theories, definitions, and challenges to theories and approaches
3.3 An adequate model of pastoral counseling with OVC
3.4 Summary of the Chapter
CHAPTER FOUR EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
4.1 Research design
4.2 Methods of the research
4.3 Population of the study (Sampling techniques)
4.4 Data collection instruments and procedures
4.5 Methods of data analysis and presentation
4.6 Validity and reliability of the methods
4.7 Ethics in Research
4.8 Summary of the chapter
CHAPTER FIVE RESEARCH RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
5.1 Interview schedule results
5.2 Summary of the case studies
5.3 Focus group results
5.4 Reflection and general assessment
5.5 Concluding remarks
5.6 Summary of the chapter
CHAPTER SIX AN INTEGRATIVE MODEL FOR THE NARRATIVE APPROACH IN PASTORAL COUNSELING WITH OVC
6.1 Narratives
6.2 An integrative narrative model in coping and healing phenomenon for the OVC
6.3 Narrative approach in/to pastoral counseling
6.4 Integrating practical theology and narrative approach
6.5 Summary of the chapter
CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSION
7.1 Summary of the thesis
7.2 Challenges of the study
7.3 Recommendation
REFERENCES
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