CREATING A POSITIVE SCHOOL CLIMATE

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CHAPTER THREE A REVIEW OF SCHOOL CLIMATE LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Chapter Two of this study dealt with leadership styles, which is an aspect of the first objective of this study as stated in Chapter one. This Chapter will consider the other part of the first objective as it presents literature review on school climate. The primary objective of this chapter is to examine the effects of different types of climates on the teachers, pupils and the school as an organisation. In discussing the relationship between leadership style and school climate, which is the aim of this study, it will be necessary to examine the concept of school climate, types of climate and how climate can influence or be influenced by other variables especially leadership style.
For many years, the establishment and maintenance of a positive climate in schools have been the focus of educational reformers and researchers. Therefore, there is a growing interest in investigating factors, which account for the differences in climate that prevails in schools. Halpin (1966:131) observes that schools differ in many ways, in both tangible and intangible ways. Schools have distinctive identities, which distinguish them from one another; standard of pupil’s behaviour and academic attainment differ between schools regardless of comparable intakes and areas in which the schools are situated. The previous chapter revealed that to some extent, the headteacher’s leadership style determines the climate of a school, but teachers, pupils and parents’ behaviour are also contributing factors to the existing climate in a school. Therefore, in discussing school climate, the headteacher, teachers, pupils and parents are considered the units of analysis.
The focus of this chapter will be on the types and dimensions of school climate. The impact of all types of climate on pupils, teachers and parents will be examined, using some perspectives on climate with more attention on open-closed climate perspectives. The analysis of different perspectives indicates that headteacher, teachers, pupils and parents’ behaviours affect school climate, but the headteacher’s behaviour is the generating factor that determines the school climate. In this respect, a case could be made that to some extent, there is a link between the headteacher’s behaviour and school climate.

WHAT IS SCHOOL CLIMATE?

The organisational climate as a concept originated in the late 1950s as social scientists studied variations in work environments. Andrew Halpin and Don Croft were the pioneering researchers of school climate. They published the results of their research on school climate in 1963. Thus, the concept came to limelight and their work forms the basis upon which other scholars and researchers on school climate build (Freiberg 1999:3).
Various researchers and educational reformers have defined school climate in different ways, but there seems to be consensus on what constitutes school climate. Freiberg and Stein (1999:11) assert that school climate is the ‘heart and soul’ of a school; the feature of a school that motivates pupils, teachers and the headteacher to love the school and desire to be there each school day. The heart and soul are used metaphorically to underscore the importance of school climate; it motivates and gratifies school members that they feel comfortable while in school making them to be attracted to the school. In view of this, climate is the aspect of the school that gives it life and reveals values that the school cherishes.
Hoy and Miskel 1996 (as reported by Sweetland and Hoy (2000:705) define school climate is as a relatively enduring quality of the whole school which is experienced by the group, depicts their shared perceptions of behaviour, and influences their attitudes and behaviour in school. Moreover, Gilmer (1971:28-29) perceives organisational climate as those characteristics that distinguish an organisation from its kind and influence the behaviour of people in the organisation. In other words, just as certain behaviours are peculiar to an individual and are used to distinguish the individual from other people, each school has its own peculiar characteristics in terms of the way people interact, treat and respect one another, which in turn bears on their perception of their school and accounts for their attitude and behaviour toward school and the quality of school work. Thus, the general perception of the climate as the personality of the organisation; and the notion: climate is to organisation as personality is to individual (Halpin 1966:131). Therefore, the climate in school A will be different from the climate in school B.
Litwin and Stringer (1968:1) maintain that organisational climate is a set of ‘measurable properties of the work environment’, based on the collective perceptions of the people who live and work in the environment, and whose behaviour is influenced by their perceptions. Similarly, Cooper (2003:35-36) describes organisational climate as people’s perception of their working environment with regard to caring and friendliness. In other words, organisational climate is more or less the people’s understanding of the amount of kindness and hospitality they receive as they interact with the management In effect, school climate is subject to the perceptions of staff and pupils, which again influence their behaviour, and it is measurable.
From the above definitions, it can be inferred that school climate has everything to do with the atmosphere, tone or feeling that prevail in a particular school. It is brought about by the interaction between the headteacher and teachers, among teachers and pupils and between the headteacher and pupils. The school as a system of social interaction compels the headteacher, teachers and pupils to interrelate at administrative level in area of planning, decision-making, problem solving and control. They also interact through personal matters, which are part of normal school routine. For the purpose of this study, school climate is used to refer to the way the headteacher, teachers, pupils and parents experience and perceive the quality of the working situation emanating from their interaction.
School culture and school climate are sometimes used interchangeably. Even though the two concepts are similar in some aspects, yet there are some distinct differences. In the 1930s and 1940s, the idea of organisational culture surfaced in order to provide a better understanding of the basic meaning and character of institutional life. Describing the nature and function of the informal organisation, Mayo’s (2001:57-58) study suggests that standards, values belief and emergent interactions in the work place are very significant because they clarify the nature and function and effect of the informal organisational performance. That is, the ways of doing things and what the organisation holds important affect the behaviour of people working in the organisation, and consequently productivity. In this regard, Selznick (1957:17) suggests that organisations are not only to be seen as institutions, but also organisations where technical requirements are not placed over and above values that give them distinctive identities. This distinctive identity, according to him, attaches individuals to the organisation and causes its members to be loyal and committed to the organisation. It is Selznick’s (1957:57) view of organisations as institutions that forms the basis for analyses of organisations as cultures.
Robbins (1991:595) describes culture as a ‘system of beliefs about the organisation, shared by its members, that distinguishes it from other organisations’. Castetter and Young (2000:95) perceive culture as a set of interrelated behaviours, values norms, expectations and ideas shared by organisation members. Barth (2002:7) believes that culture is a pattern of norms, attitudes, beliefs, behaviours, values and ceremonies. In essence, culture basically deals with people’s shared beliefs, which unite members together, reflects the patterns of doing things in an organisation and gives it a distinct identity. For instance, a newly established school is run in a way that reflects the governing policy of education authorities. However, the headteacher, teachers and parents decide on which norms, values and beliefs should be emphasised and how they should be passed onto the pupils. Basically, the stakeholders develop and emphasise these norms and values until they become part and parcel of the school. These norms, values and beliefs will be a product of concerted efforts in directing the organisation in the manner it should function. This is a school culture. It is noteworthy that culture can become very strong to the extent that adaptation to new invention or ideas may be difficult.
Moorhead and Griffin (2001:448) distinguish between school climate and school culture. In their view, much of the study on climate is based on psychology while the study of culture is in anthropology and sociology. Usually, school climate points to the current situations in a school and the connection between staff and pupils behaviour and performances. Thus, climate is usually more easily manipulated by the headteacher to have direct impact on the behaviour on the staff and consequently the pupils. On the other hand, school culture usually refers to historical context within which a school operates and the effect of the context on the behaviours of staff and pupils. Therefore, it is more difficult to change within a short period because it has been defined from the inception of and it has become its tradition.
Moreover, school culture is often described as the means through which staff and pupils learn and communicate what is acceptable and unacceptable in a school. It emphasises values and norms about staff and pupils’ behaviour, whereas most descriptions of school climate do not deal with values and norms. Rather, climate descriptions are concerned with the current atmosphere in a school. However, both concepts are similar in the sense that they are concerned with the overall work atmosphere in the school. Both have negative and positive effects on stakeholders. The influence of the school on the lives of teachers, pupils, parents and the headteacher has to do with favourableness or otherwise of the school climate. It has been observed that the more favourable the climate of a school the more both teachers and pupils love to work and learn in the school: the more satisfaction among the stakeholders. On the other hand, the more unfavourable the climate, the more teachers and pupils are unhappy to remain in school and the more pupils lack confidence in school and the higher the dropout rates (Hoy & Forsyth 1986:155).
Similarly, culture’s positive influence reflects in the solid foundation and power it gives the school as well as stable and established practices and work pattern whereby security is enhanced. A steady and stable environment affords both teachers and pupils the opportunity to realize their potentials and achieve their optimum best. Much as this is good, culture can also have a negative influence on both the teachers and pupils. It can become routine, and obsolete. Teachers’ and pupils’ initiative capabilities may be discouraged with the mind that things should always be done in the ways they have been and that there is no need for innovation and change.
Even though there are some similarities between climate and culture one cannot be used in the place of the other. Though the culture of a school does influence the type of climate that exists in a school, this research examines climate and not culture.

Importance of school climate

The climate of the school is one of the vital factors that determine pupils’ perception of life and therefore how they respond to daily challenges. Fopiano and Norris (2001:49) and Pasi (2001:18) argue that a supportive and responsive school climate fosters a sense of belonging, promotes resiliency and reduces possible negative circumstances of the home environment. These scholars add that social and emotional needs are congruent with learning needs. Therefore, these needs should be addressed so as to facilitate learning. Negative circumstances at home, for example, violence, overcrowding, poverty, informed and uninvolved parents influence pupils’ perception; as well as their responses to learning objectives in school environment. Pupils who experience negative circumstances at home can be helped to actualize their potential by providing school climate that nurtures, supports and challenges them. In essence, enhancing school climate can assist pupils who are challenged socially and emotionally.
According to Brooks (1999:65-66), pupils are more likely to thrive when they are in school environment to which they feel they belong and are comfortable, a school environment in which they feel appreciated by teachers. Many adolescents join gangs to satisfy this need for connectedness and a sense of identity. Related to this feeling of belonging is the importance of helping each student to feel welcome, thereby reducing the feelings of alienation and disconnectedness.
Pasi (2001:18) observes that schools have become important in the lives of pupils especially those who face negative circumstances at home. Thus, more than ever before, the school should be a safe and positive place, which is conducive to learning, fosters positive relationships and helps pupils to prepare for future challenges. He adds that the school climate significantly influences the way pupils feel about education. A school’s climate can have a positive effect on pupils or it can be a barrier to learning, that is, it can either hinder or facilitate the realization of pupils’ potentials.

Perspectives on school climate

There are several perspectives on school climate but for the purpose of relevance, three perspectives will be examined: pupil-control perspective, climate as health and climate as personality.

Climate as personality

Freiberg and Stein (1999:11) state that although the school is not an organic being in the biological sense, it has the qualities of a living organism in the organisational sense. They explain that beyond the physical structure of the school, there exist other elements that mirror the way people interact, which account for the social fabric that attends the working and learning condition in the school. Thus, the conclusion that: ‘climate is real: it can be felt’. Halpin and Croft’s (as reported by Halpin 1966:132) approach was meant to identify the critical importance of teacher-teacher and teacher-principal interactions in schools. As a result, Halpin and Croft constructed the Organisational Climate Descriptive Questionnaire (OCDQ), which portrays the climate of an elementary school. Halpin and Croft construe school climate as organisational ‘personality’ in conceptualizing the climates of the school along an open-to-closed continuum (Halpin 1966:133).
The behaviours of individuals in the school community contribute to school climate. The headteacher’s behaviour, teachers’ behaviour, pupils’ behaviour and parents’ behaviour constitute the type of climate that exists in the school. Moreover, the type of climate that prevails in a school reflects the level and or type of interaction between the headteacher and teachers, among teachers, between teachers and pupils, among pupils and between parents and the school. Halpin (1966:174-180) highlights different types of climates that exist in schools: open climate, autonomous climate, controlled climate, familiar climate, paternalistic climate and closed climate. These climates can be described along an open-to-closed continuum.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE 1 THE BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM
1.3 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.5 DEMARCATION OF THE RESEARCH
1.6 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS AND ACRONYMS
1.7 THE RESEARCH METHOD
1.8 PLAN OF STUDY
1.9 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER TWO  A REVIEW OF LEADERSHIP STYLE LITERATURE 
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?
2.3 LEADERSHP THEORIES
2.4 LEADERSHIP STYLES
2.5 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER THREE  A REVIEW OF SCHOOL CLIMATE LITERATURE 
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 WHAT IS SCHOOL CLIMATE?
3.3 CREATING A POSITIVE SCHOOL CLIMATE
3.4 SUSATAINING A POSITIVE SCHOOL CLIMATE
3.5 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER FOUR  EMPIRICAL RESEARCH 
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUES
4.3 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.4 SURVEY
4.5 RATIONALE FOR CHOICE OF METHODOLOGY
4.6 DETERMINING RESEARCH SAMPLE SIZE
4.7 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
4.8 PRINCIPLE AND ETHICS GUIDING RESEARCH
4.9 SAMPLING OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
4.10 INSTRUMENTS
4.11 RATIONALE FOR CHOICE OF THE OCDQ AND LEAD INSTRUMENTS
4.12 GUIDELINES FOR INTERVIEWING
4.13 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS: RATIONALE FOR CHOICE OF DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
4.14 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
4.15 DATA PROCESSING
4.16 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER FIVE DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 RESPONSE RATE AND STRUCTURE OF DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
5.3 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE OCDQ-RS AND LEAD-Other DATA
5.4 CONCLUSION 182
CHAPTER SIX 184 RESEARCH FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND AREAS OF FURTHER RESEARCH 
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 RESEARCH RESULTS
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
6.4 THEMES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
6.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP STYLE AND SCHOOL CLIMATE IN BOTSWANA SECONDARY SCHOOLS