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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Introduction
This study is predicated on the interaction between digital literacy, language learning theories, teacher resilience and initiatives in English pedagogy. The review of the origins, key components and operationalisation of digital literacy in secondary schools is guided by learning theories, namely behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. This exploration is guided by language learning theories which inform human actions. Teachers’ initiatives on digital literacy are a psychological process in response to the presence of digital tools in the teaching and learning space. The focus of this study is on how teachers teach digital literacy in English. The study borrows from Bandura’s (1977) self-efficacy psychology in order to understand teacher resilience as adaptation to technological development. The link between Bandura’s (1977) self-efficacy theory and adaptive resilience is that teachers use vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and psychological feedback as copying strategies or adjustment to stress in new digital literacy pedagogy. The literature review reflects on the concept of digital literacy in English in relation to teacher resilience. In this chapter, I review theories applied in digital literacy teaching, global perspectives, the South African context on digital literacy, adaptive resilience on the development of new literacies for teachers, key components and strategies of digital literacy practices, connectivism and networking, and teacher initiatives on planning for teaching and using digital literacy. The review begins with an overview of the background to the South African curriculum and its justification to include digital literacy in the English syllabus.
Background to the South African English syllabus
The background to the South African English syllabus is important in this study because it provides context and historical antecedents of the changes and innovations in the English syllabus. The current South African English syllabus is a product of previous and continuous evaluation and review of aims and objectives, content and pedagogy. The reviews resulted in Outcomes Based Education (OBE), Curriculum 2005 and the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) leading to the current Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS). The changes and innovations were influenced by a number of factors, which include technological development and innovation in line with global demands. In view of these curriculum changes, changes on how content should be taught were implemented in the English syllabus. The inclusion of digital literacy in the syllabus was limited and no pedagogic prescriptions were specifically indicated. Despite changes necessitated by technological development, reports of poor performance by matric graduates in tertiary institutions challenged education planners to review the curriculum in line with technological demands (Mafenya 2013). Digital literacy was included in the syllabus under learning and teaching material that supported the teaching of languages. In view of the focus of this study, an exploration of teacher initiatives on the basis of a syllabus change necessitated by inclusion of digital literacy helps to understand the strategies and approaches used by teachers to support the teaching of English as a second language in South Africa. Most learners from South African secondary schools in townships are predominantly mother-tongue speakers of African languages. Historically, South Africa’s languages in education policies have been influenced by political policies – particularly in the post- apartheid era when eleven languages became official languages. The language policy in the post-apartheid era was a welcome gesture despite it not dislodging the hegemonic dominance of English in both education and business (Mutasa 2006, Howie, Venter & Van Staden 2008). The dominance of English in both education and business positions it at the top of the list of languages used in South Africa and learners from townships are forced to use it for learning at school. Since English is not their first language, learners in township schools struggle to use English proficiently as a second language in academic domains. In view of the challenge with proficiency in English, the inclusion of digital literacy is a strategy aimed at improving proficiency among learners (Hague & Payton 2010). I therefore sought to explore the teacher initiatives in the teaching of digital literacy – particularly in resource-constrained, township, secondary schools. Rocha (2016) connotes that the inclusion of digital literacy in the English syllabus is to help improve teaching strategies and create learning opportunities in English. Previous research indicates approaches and models on improving English language proficiency but do not provide sufficient pedagogic strategies for teaching and using digital literacy in English. By using Cummins’ (1981) international research findings, gaining Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) in a second language requires almost two years of exposure to the target language (Moodley 2013). In the same vein, gaining Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) requires an additional 5 years on the assumption that all variables, which include good teaching, availability of resources and teacher-learner ratio are in place (Cummins 1981, Moodley 2013). In support of the need for proficiency in English as a second language, the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) report (2015) says that by the time learners from township schools switch to English as a second language, the process has far-reaching implications in terms of literacy, particularly where digital literacy is involved. The implication in the context of this study is that leaners may be affected by the lack of English proficiency after they have enrolled for tertiary education. I argue that the use of digital literacy in English teaching may support proficiency. In support of the argument above, McNulty (2014) says that digital literacy teaching in English is critically important in achieving proficiency because it provides language learning opportunities, digital resources for research in English language and communicative ability in the digital space. In addition to learning communicative ability, digital literacy also provides opportunities for the creation of texts, writing, and different reading patterns and strategies, which support English language learning. In my experience as a university lecturer, university students’ lack of English proficiency has been one of the justifications for teaching Foundation English for communication at tertiary institutions. For this exploratory case study, I sought to explore teacher initiatives on the use of digital literacy in teaching English to improve proficiency. English proficiency is attained through the strategies and initiatives taken by English teachers to support learners in line with the syllabus guidelines. The syllabus guidelines for English language contained in the CAPS (DBE 2011) recommend four language teaching methods, namely communicative language teaching, text based approach, discourse and the process-based approach (DBE 2011). One of the aims of the English syllabus is to provide knowledge and skills to learners in the South African context in order to learn to use English effectively in expressing ideas and interacting with different groups of people from similar linguistic backgrounds across the world (DBE 2011). The methods recommended in the CAPS (DBE 2011) include the use of digital tools and teaching digital literacy as a way to address learner needs, previous socio-economic imbalances, provide access to information repositories and to respond to global digital imperatives. Digital facilities mentioned in the English syllabus (DBE 2011) include Facebook, internet sites, blogs, web pages, social networks, videos and radio programmes. The above digital-based resources should be used where possible to teach English in South Africa in order to attain the outcomes of the English syllabus. The digital-based resources listed in the syllabus create an impression that all schools in South Africa have access to them. In township secondary schools, teachers and learners struggle to access the internet and some teachers do not possess the requisite skills for teaching digital literacy. This study explores how teachers teach digital literacy in English.
The inclusion of digital literacy in the English syllabus means that teachers need to integrate technology in their teaching, and devise strategies for the teaching of digital literacy. In support of pedagogic strategies, Belshaw (2011) says that digital literacy teaching is possible in contexts where computers and other digital facilities are available. On the same continuum McNulty (2014) posits that the teachers responsible for teaching and coordinating digital literacy programmes should have a positive attitude and skills for the teaching and using of digital literacy. The challenge facing English teachers in the South African context is a lack of digital competence skills and strategies that will improve learner English proficiency – particularly in resource-constrained environments. The strategies that should be used to teach digital literacy in English are not clearly stated in the CAPS (DBE 2011) document. I, therefore, sought to explore the initiatives taken by teachers on the teaching and use of digital literacy in the teaching of English language in township secondary schools. In the context of South African English, language learning theories (behaviourism, cognitivism and constructionism) have direct links to the teaching of digital literacy as teachers make adjustments and adapt to new classroom settings. These theories provide guidelines for teachers to make informed choices in planning, execution and evaluation of a teaching and learning programme. Behaviourism supports blended learning incorporating digital literacy, while cognitivism supports critical thinking and problem-solving. Insert a sentence on constructionism, e,g, collaboration, cooperative and interactive work. Literature on the South African curriculum has previously recommended the teaching of digital literacy and teacher professional development with technology integration to support the teaching of English. In this study, my understanding of language learning theories helps to explore how teachers teach strategies of teaching digital literacy in English. The background of the curriculum has a progressive connection with current studies linked to technological development.
Current studies on digital literacy in the South African English syllabus
Current studies and research in technological development in Africa positions South Africa as an advanced player in terms of access to networks, digital tools and digital literacy (Kajee & Balfour 2011). This notion of technological development portrays South Africa as more advanced in digital connections and access to digital tools than other countries in the region. However, on a global scale, the country is a relative minor player. In view of this, Kajee and Balfour (2011) strongly call on government, industry, educators and educationists to, through collaboration, address the digital skills shortage to transform the country into an ICT powerhouse. Street (2003) argues that the demand for digital skills in industry and other facets of life is what the new generation requires – new skills and new ways of thinking, and the appropriate pedagogy for teaching digital literacy. Kajee and Balfour (2004) and McNulty (2014) recommend the recognition of out- of-school literacy practices as part of language learning. In this context, learners’ out-of- classroom literacy practices have important implications for the classroom activities, and the school system should also develop pedagogic initiatives and strategies to help teachers in teaching digital literacy to improve proficiency.
Discussions on literacy and digital development in African and other parts of the world have also led to the emergence of multiliteracy courses in schools and colleges, which require the innovation of curricula in education to include digital literacy. Technological development and inclusion in the curriculum necessitates the teaching of digital literacy in schools. For example, the curriculum change in the South African basic education system saw the inclusion of the teaching of digital literacy in English and other subjects (Reid 2016). At tertiary level, the University of Johannesburg has embarked on a digital intervention programme to improve English proficiency and digital competence among students from digitally under-resourced environments (Kajee & Balfour 2011). The mentioned examples support the development of the teaching of digital literacy in different subjects and teacher professional development courses such as New Literacies for Teachers (NLFT).
On the digital literacy platform, Reid (2016) says that the introduction of New Literacies for Teachers (NLFT) at the University of the Witwatersrand is a development in providing pedagogical and digital skills for young teachers to use in the South African curriculum. The preparation of teachers at this level is a mitigation measure that supports the teaching of digital literacy in English in schools. In this exploratory case study, I focus on exploring the initiatives taken by teachers in township settings on how digital literacy is taught in English. On this technological development continuum, teachers are making adjustments to adapt to technological development because the English syllabus change has necessitated the inclusion of digital literacy. The process of integrating language learning theories and the teaching of digital literacy links with teacher resilience in English teaching.
The significance of teacher resilience, language learning theories and digital literacy in the English syllabus
The inclusion of learning theories in digital literacy teaching culminates from the traditional language learning theories. Selected language learning theories provide guidelines on how teaching of digital literacy can be predicated on theoretical principles. Theories of language learning inform the study on how digital literacy is taught and used in the teaching of English in secondary schools. Behaviourism is a psychological theory stipulating that learning takes place as a result of the stimulus-response (Barak 2006). Behaviourists’ experiments with animals show that animal behaviour changes as a response to stimuli. This has formed the basis for explaining human learning over the years (Ellis 1994). Over the last decade researchers have ascribed e-learning to behaviourism while blended learning has been aligned to cognitivism. The inclusion of the learning theories in this study informs the reader on the different roles of computer programs in teaching and learning of English. For example, cognitivism places learning in the power of the learner and therefore regards a computer as a tutor (Young 2002). Piaget and others believe that artificial intelligence can emulate the thinking and problem- solving of domain experts (Kim & Bonk 2006). The examples given above indicate the role of the computer in both behaviourists and cognitive domain. On the same continuum, constructivist theories of learning dominate today and propagate that learning takes place through active construction of knowledge in different contexts necessitated by social interaction (Young 2002). The views on constructivism place virtual learning at a high level of collaboration, a feature that is advocated by digital literacy practices because it personalises learning and encourages technological integration. The three learning theories are linked to teacher initiatives on digital literacy and its use in the teaching of English language. Views from Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory.
Declaration
Ethical clearance certificate
Dedication
Acknowledgements
MJ de Jager
Language Practitioner
CHAPTER 1: Overview of the study
1.1 Introduction and rationale
1.2 Problem statement
1.3 Purpose of the study
1.4 Research questions
1.5 Assumptions of the study
1.6 Concept clarification
1.7 Conceptual framework
1.8 Literature review
1.8.1 Global and African perspective on digital literacy
1.8.2 South Africa’s digital literacy experiences in English language teaching
1.8.3 Broad contextual factors of teacher initiatives on digital literacy in the English syllabus
1.8.4 Township English teachers’ adaptation to digital literacy in English
1.8.5 Conceptualising teacher initiatives and digital literacy in the South African English syllabus
1.9 Research methodology
1.9.1 Research design
1.9.2 Selection of participants and sites
1.9.3 Semi-structured interviews
1.9.4 Non-participant lesson observations
1.10 Quality criteria
1.11 Ethical considerations
1.12 Chapter outline
1.13 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Background to the South African English syllabus
2.3 Current studies on digital literacy in the South African English syllabus
2.4 The significance of teacher resilience, language learning theories and digital literacy in
the English syllabus
2.5 Application of English language learning theories in digital literacy
2.6 Township English teachers’ resilience on digital literacy
2.7 Adaptive features of township teacher resilience in English language teaching in the digital age
2.8 A global perspective on teaching of digital literacy
2.9 Digital literacy practices on the African continent
2.10 Levels of digital literacy development in the South African English syllabus
2.11 Digital tools in support of English language teaching and learning
2.12 New literacies for township secondary school English teachers
2.13 Digital literacy as innovation in the English syllabus
2.14 Key components in digital literacy for township secondary schools
2.15 Digital competence in English language teaching and learning
2.16 Connectivism and digital literacy in the English syllabus
2.17 Networking for digital literacy in the English teaching space
2.18 Creation of digital literacy English learning groups in township secondary schools
2.19 Planning for digital literacy in English language teaching and learning
2.20 Teaching English in township secondary schools with online resources
2.21 Digital literacy and traditional writing proficiency in secondary schools
2.22 Initiatives on digital literacy by teachers in resource-constrained settings
2.23 Digital literacy and the world of work
2.24 Implications for the South African English syllabus at secondary school level
2.25 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Paradigmatic orientation
3.3 Research approach
3.4 Research design: exploratory case study
3.5 Selection of participants
3.6 Data collection methods
3.7 Inductive thematic analysis
3.8 Trustworthiness
3.9 Ethical considerations
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Description of participants
4.3 Summary of themes, sub-themes and categories
4.4 Theme 1: English teachers’ understanding of digital literacy
4.5. Theme 2: Strategies and approaches used to teach digital literacy
4.6 Theme 3: Challenges faced when teaching digital literacy
4.7 Theme 4: Strategies for improving the teaching of digital literacy
4.8 Discussion of findings
CHAPTER 5: SIGNIFICANCE AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Summary of the study
5.3 Situating the findings within the study’s conceptual framework
5.4 Conclusions in terms of the research questions
5.5 Main themes emerging from the findings
5.6 Implications of the study
5.8 Recommendations for future studies
5.9 Policy formulation and development
5.10 Township English teachers’ views on digital literacy pedagogy
5.11 Experiences of the researcher
5.12 Final reflection
5.13 Conclusion
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