DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY ADOLESCENTS

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INTRODUCTION

Divorce implies the termination of a marriage by legal means, whereas marriage separation in a social context is viewed as a situation in which a couple lives apart while deciding what to do about an unhealthy marriage (Ahrons, 1999).
In a view put forward by Molepo, Maunganidze, Mudhovoz and Sodi (2010), divorce (or marital dissolution in this context) is described as the choice of two people not to live together as husband and wife any more. Berk (2003) suggests that marital dissolution should not be regarded as a once off event that occurs in a family, but rather as a period of change that may affect a variety of life aspects, such as changes in living arrangements; changes in income; as well as changes in family interaction. In many African countries divorce was unheard of in the past as it was not sanctioned by cultural norms. However, since the beginning of the 20th century divorce has become a common phenomenon in many countries across the globe (Pillay, & Wasielewski, 2007). Today, perhaps due to many changes in the diverse walks of human life, the incidence of marital dissolution is increasing at an alarming rate. This increase is global in nature and affects all parts of the world. Although the family is traditionally considered as a loving and supportive social institution, in modern times it is often characterised by conflict and even violence which may lead to marital dissolution (Gelles, & Harrop, 1989). More often than not the victims of problems which occur in a marriage are the children who may experience both short- and long-term problems in terms of their academic, social, physical, emotional and psychological functioning and well-being1 (Ahrons, 1999).
More than a decade ago, Trengove (1997) observed that approximately 40,000 children around the world experienced the breakup of their parents annually. Trengove (1997) predicted that up to a third of all children born in wedlock were at risk of experiencing their parents’ separation before the age of 18. Non-intact family structures, such as single-parent families, stepfamilies, grandmother families and families in which parents are merely cohabiting, have become common alternatives to double-parent families. Concerning the phenomena of parental divorce and marriage separation, Tanzania seems to differ slightly from other countries. The majority of Tanzanian married couples do not follow legal procedures or have any legal documents when they separate – as required for divorce in the true sense of the word. Couples merely decide to part with each going his/her own way. Parental separation is, therefore, common in Tanzania – as opposed to legal divorce which is limited (Shabani, & Kuname, 2011). Since the context of this study is Tanzania, the concept of ‘marital dissolution’ will be used to imply both divorce and parental separation.
Only limited research has been done in this area of interest in Tanzania, leading to the question concerning whether or not the effects of divorce on children (as determined in many studies of first-world countries) can be applied to the Tanzanian context where parents separate rather than divorce legally. In addition to the rather common trend of Tanzanian couples to simply separate in challenging times, the country faces further challenges in the form of increased numbers of street children; increased delinquency and gang activities; high rates of school dropouts; and teenage pregnancies in girls (Kimwaga, 2000). In an effort to find reasons for the multitude of street children flocking to the city of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania, Lugalla and Mbwambo (2005) found that, among other reasons, 69% of the children cited a variety of marital problems, such as marital dissolution and the death of a parent; 62% of the children mentioned fighting between couples and the abusive nature of a stepparent.
In support of these findings, I found in my master’s degree study, which investigated the causes of delinquency among street children that 60% of street children were forced out onto the city streets for reasons related to family conflict and parental separation (Mauki, 2007). Although limited, findings like these indicate a potential link between marital dissolution and the increase in street children in Tanzania. In addition, unacceptable behaviour and misconduct by children are often related to parental problems (Shemsanga, 2011) which may, in turn, be linked to the incidence of street children and their behaviour on the street. In a study on drug abuse in Tanzania, Possi (1996) noted that insufficient influence of family over individual actions; lack of parental guidance; and poor social-economic conditions were among the reasons why children engaged in drug trafficking and abuse. Such problems may arise due to family disruption and dysfunction which, in turn, may be related to marital dissolution.
Child stagnation is viewed as a common outcome of marital dissolution causing children in a family to go into decline; to be inactive; and not to develop and excel as well as they used to (The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, 2005). In this study, the focus is on two areas of child stagnation: namely, academic performance and psycho-social well- being – specifically among children of 12 to 15 years of age. In many broken families and particularly in the stated age group, these two areas of functioning have been found to be affected following the deprivation of certain needs and materials which may occur after marital dissolution (Kelly, & Emery, 2003; Clandos, & Kemp, 2007). In order for children to excel, despite marital dissolution, it is important that good policies and rules are maintained by local Government to protect children from the negative outcomes of parental separation. This can be viewed as a particular weakness currently being experienced in Tanzania (Melkiory, & Kanyabuhinya, 2011) – as explained in the next section.
At the other end of the spectrum, Størksen, Røysamb, Moum and Tambs (2005) cite the Norwegian Government as an example where special laws and regulations are in place to counteract the negative effects of marital dissolution on children. In Norway, newly separated couples are offered family counselling and single parents are given priority in several areas, including daycare services for their children and if a single parent is unable to work, the government provides financial assistance. In addition, the law requires a non-custodial parent to provide day-to-day financial assistance needed by his/her children. If the parent fails to do so for whatever reason, the government intervenes. Children are allowed to visit the non-resident parent (usually the father) one afternoon every week and a weekend every second week (Størksen et al., 2005). The question that arises concerns the possibility of introducing some of these policies, which correlate with divorce policies in other countries worldwide, to Tanzania as this – despite the country’s low economic status – may, potentially, result in homes being supportive places for children to live and thrive.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS :

Dedication
Acknowledgments
Declaration
Abstract
Key Words
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Photographs
CHAPTER SETTING THE STAGE: INTRODUCTION AND RATIONALE
- 1.1 INTRODUCTION
- 1.2 CONTEXTUALIZATION: CULTURE, MARRIAGE, MARITAL DISSOLUTION AND CHILD AFFAIRS IN TANZANIA
  - 1.2.1 CULTURE AND MARRIAGE IN TANZANIA
  - 1.2.2 MARITAL DISSOLUTION AND CHILDREN’S AFFAIRS
- 1.3 RATIONALE FOR UNDERTAKING THE STUDY
  - 1.3.1 PERSONAL MOTIVE/RATIONALE
  - 1.3.2 INTELLECTUAL/SCHOLARSHIP RATIONALE
- 1.4 AIM OF THE RESEARCH
- 1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
- 1.6 WORKING ASSUMPTIONS
- 1.7 CLARIFICATION OF KEY CONCEPTS
  - 1.7.1 CHILDREN
  - 1.7.2 MARITAL DISSOLUTION
  - 1.7.3 EFFECT
  - 1.7.4 CONSEQUENCES
  - 1.7.5 PARENTS’ INSIGHTS
  - 1.7.6 NON-RESIDENT OR NON-CUSTODIAL PARENT
- 1.8 UNDERLYING THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
  - 1.8.1 ATTACHMENT THEORY
  - 1.8.2 CRISIS THEORY
  - 1.8.3 FAMILY STRESS THEORY
  - 1.8.4 LIFE COURSE THEORY
  - 1.8.5 INTEGRATION OF THEORIES IN A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
- 1.9 PARADIGMATIC PERSPECTIVES OF THE STUDY
  - 1.9.1 EPISTEMOLOGICAL PARADIGM: SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
  - 1.9.2 METHODOLOGICAL PARADIGM: QUALITATIVE APPROACH
- 1.10 BROAD OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGICAL STRATEGIES
  - 1.10.1 RESEARCH DESIGN
  - 1.10.2 SELECTION OF CASE AND PARTICIPANTS
  - 1.10.3 DATA COLLECTION AND DOCUMENTATION
- 1.11 QUALITY CRITERIA
- 1.12 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
- 1.13 OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS
- 1.14 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER LITERATURE REVIEW, UNDERLYING THEORIES AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
- 2.1 INTRODUCTION
- 2.2 DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY ADOLESCENTS
  - 2.2.1 PHYSICAL AND HEALTH DEVELOPMENT
  - 2.2.2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
  - 2.2.3 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
  - 2.2.4 PSYCHO-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
- 2.3 DIVORCE TRENDS IN CONTEMPORARY TIMES
  - 2.3.1 DIVORCE RATES
  - 2.3.2 PREDICTORS OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION
- 2.4 MARITAL DISSOLUTION IN TANZANIA
- 2.5 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON CHILDREN
  - 2.5.1 EFFECTS OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON CHILDREN’S ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT
  - 2.5.2 EFFECTS OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON CHILDREN’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL WELL-BEING
  - 2.5.3 EFFECTS OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON CHILDREN’S RELATIONSHIP WITH NON-RESIDENTIAL PARENTS
  - 2.5.4 EFFECTS OF PARENTAL CONFLICT BEFORE AND AFTER MARITAL DISSOLUTION
- 2.6 FACTORS INFLUENCING CHILDREN’S REACTIONS TO PARENTS’ MARITAL DISSOLUTION
- 2.7 MARITAL DISSOLUTION AND DECISIONS ABOUT LIVING ARRANGEMENTS
- 2.8 PARENTS’ INSIGHT INTO THE EFFECTS OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON THEIR CHILDREN
- 2.9 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
  - 2.9.1 ATTACHMENT THEORY
  - 2.9.2 CRISIS THEORY
  - 2.9.3 FAMILY STRESS THEORY
  - 2.9.4 LIFE COURSE THEORY
  - 2.9.5 INTEGRATING UNDERLYING THEORIES INTO A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
- 2.10 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
- 3.1 INTRODUCTION
- 3.2 PARADIGMATIC PERSPECTIVES
  - 3.2.1 EPISTEMOLOGICAL PARADIGM: SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
  - 3.2.2 METHODOLOGICAL PARADIGM: QUALITATIVE APPROACH
- 3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGICAL STRATEGIES
  - 3.3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN
  - 3.3.2 RESEARCH CONTEXT
  - 3.3.3 SELECTION OF CASES AND PARTICIPANTS
  - 3.3.4 DATA COLLECTION AND DOCUMENTATION
  - 3.3.4.1 Semi-structured interviews with child and parent participants
  - 3.3.4.2 Narration with early adolescent participants
  - 3.3.4.3 Focus group discussions with teachers and caregivers
  - 3.3.4.4 Document analysis
  - 3.3.4.5 Observations, documented in the form of field-notes and a research diary
  - 3.3.5 MY ROLE AS RESEARCHER
  - 3.3.6 DATA ANALYSIS
  - 3.4 QUALITY CRITERIA
  - 3.4.1 CREDIBILITY
  - 3.4.2 DEPENDABILITY
  - 3.4.3 TRANSFERABILITY
  - 3.4.4 CONFIRMABILITY
  - 3.4.5 AUTHENTICITY
- 3.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
  - 3.5.1 PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH
  - 3.5.2 INFORMED CONSENT AND ASSENT
  - 3.5.3 FREEDOM TO WITHDRAW
  - 3.5.4 PRIVACY, CONFIDENTIALITY AND ANONYMITY
  - 3.5.5 USE AND MISUSE OF RESULTS
  - 3.5.6 HONESTY AND TRUST
  - 3.5.7 PROTECTION FROM HARM
- 3.6 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER RESULTS OF THE STUDY
- 4.1 INTRODUCTION
- 4.2 THEME 1: REASONS FOR MARITAL DISSOLUTION
  - 4.2.1 SUB-THEME 1.1: ABUSE
  - 4.2.1.1 Alcoholism
  - 4.2.1.2 Conflict and abusive behaviour
  - 4.2.2 SUB-THEME 1.2: LACK OF COMMITMENT TO THE FAMILY
  - 4.2.2.1 Extra-marital relationships
  - 4.2.2.2 Family neglect
- 4.2.3 SUB-THEME 1.3: INFLUENCE OF OTHERS
  - 4.2.3.1 Couples’ immaturity
  - 4.2.3.2 Influence of in-laws
  - 4.3.3.3 Lack of support from relatives
- 4.2.4 SUB-THEME 1.4: FINANCIAL STRAIN
  - 4.2.4.1 Lack of stable employment
  - 4.2.4.2 Poverty
- 4.3 THEME 2: EFFECTS OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION EARLY ADOLESCENTS’ FUNCTIONING
- 4.3.1 SUB-THEME 2.1: EFFECTS ON EARLY ADOLESCENT’S ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
  - 4.3.1.1 Poor school attendance and dropout
  - 4.3.1.2 Concentration problems and poor academic performance
  - 4.3.1.3 Specific learning problems
- 4.3.2 SUB-THEME 2.2: EFFECTS ON EARLY ADOLESCENT’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL WELL-BEING
  - 4.3.2.1 Effects on parent-child relationships
  - 4.3.2.2 Emotional pain and consequences on children’s perceptions
  - 4.3.2.3 Acting out behaviour
  - 4.3.2.4 Child abuse
  - 4.3.2.5 Variations in the effects of marital dissolution on children
4.3.3 SUB-THEME 2.3: PARENTS’ INSIGHTS INTO THE EFFECTS OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON THEIR CHILDREN
4.3.3.1 Children’s desire to be informed
4.3.3.2 Factors influencing parents’ disclosure of separation to children
4.3.3.3 Limited insight into the effects of marital dissolution on their children
4.4 THEME 3: TRENDS FOLLOWING MARITAL DISSOLUTION
4.4.1 SUB-THEME 3.1: POSITIVE EFFECTS OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION
4.4.1.1 Freedom from abusive environment
4.4.1.2 Personal development and skills acquisition
4.4.2 SUB-THEME 3.2: CHANGE IN LIVING ARRANGEMENTS
4.4.2.1 Nature of custodial arrangements
4.4.2.2 Visits to non-custodial parent
4.4.2.3 Conflict related to living arrangements and visits with non-resident parent
4.4.3 SUB-THEME 3.3: OTHER RELATED CHANGES NEGATIVELY AFFECTING CHILDREN
4.4.3.1 Changed socio-economic status, poverty and relocation
4.4.3.2 Remarriage and other post-divorce relationships
4.4.3.3 Effects of parents’ emotional states on children
4.4.3.4 Increased dependency on relatives
4.5 THEME 4: MANAGING MARITAL DISSOLUTION IN TANZANIA
4.5.1 SUB-THEME 4.1: MINIMISING THE EFFECTS OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON CHILDREN
- 4.5.1.1 Limiting incidents of marital dissolution
- 4.5.1.2 Prioritising the well-being of the children
- 4.5.1.3 Relying on systemic support structures
4.5.2 SUB-THEME 4.2: POTENTIAL ROLE OF THE TANZANIAN GOVERNMENT
4.5.2.1 Lack of awareness about policies by Tanzanian citizens
4.5.2.2 Need for revised laws and policies related to children from broken families
4.5.2.3 Potential supportive role of government
4.6 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
- 5.1 INTRODUCTION
- 5.2 FINDINGS IN SUPPORT OF EXISTING LITERATURE
- 5.2.1 REASONS FOR MARITAL DISSOLUTION
- 5.2.2 POTENTIAL POSITIVE EFFECT OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON EARLY ADOLESCENTS
- 5.2.3 NEGATIVE EFFECT OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON EARLY ADOLESCENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
- 5.2.4 NEGATIVE EFFECT OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON EARLY ADOLESCENTS’ PSYCHO-SOCIAL WELL-BEING
- 5.2.5 INDIRECT EFFECTS OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON EARLY ADOLESCENTS
- 5.2.6 MANAGING MARITAL DISSOLUTION MORE EFFECTIVELY
- 5.3 FINDINGS THAT CONTRADICT EXISTING LITERATURE
- 5.3.1 PARENTS’ INVOLVEMENT IN CHILDREN’S LIVES FOLLOWING MARITAL DISSOLUTION
- 5.3.2 NATURE OF CUSTODIAL ARRANGEMENTS
- 5.3.3 CHILDREN’S ADJUSTMENT FOLLOWING MARITAL DISSOLUTION
- 5.3.4 PERCEIVED LIMITATIONS IN LAWS AND POLICIES RELATED TO MARRIAGE AND CHILDREN
- 5.4 SILENCES IN COLLECTED DATA WHEN COMPARED TO EXISTING LITERATURE
- 5.4.1 SILENCES IN TERMS OF THE EFFECT OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON EARLY ADOLESCENTS’ PSYCHO-SOCIAL WELL-BEING
- 5.4.2 SILENCES IN TERMS OF CERTAIN CHALLENGES EXPERIENCED BY EARLY ADOLESCENTS FOLLOWING MARITAL DISSOLUTION
- 5.4.3 SILENCES IN THE POTENTIALLY SUPPORTIVE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
- 5.5 NEW INSIGHTS OBTAINED FROM THIS STUDY
- 5.5.1 CAUSES OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION IN THE TANZANIAN CULTURE
- 5.5.2 EFFECTS OF MARITAL DISSOLUTION ON EARLY ADOLESCENTS IN TANZANIA
- 5.5.3 REASONS FOR PARENTS’ RELUCTANCE TO DISCUSS MARITAL DISSOLUTION
- WITH CHILDREN
- CHAPTER CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
  - 6.1 INTRODUCTION
  - 6.2 OVERVIEW OF PRECEDING CHAPTERS
  - 6.3 CONCLUSIONS IN TERMS OF THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
  - 6.3.1 SECONDARY RESEARCH QUESTION
  - 6.3.2 SECONDARY RESEARCH QUESTION
  - 6.3.3 SECONDARY RESEARCH QUESTION
  - 6.3.4 SECONDARY RESEARCH QUESTION
  - 6.3.5 SECONDARY RESEARCH QUESTION
  - 6.4 FINAL REFLECTIONS IN TERMS OF THE PRIMARY RESEARCH QUESTION
  - 6.4.1 THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTION
  - 6.4.2 METHODOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTION
  - 6.4.3 PROFESSION-RELATED CONTRIBUTION
  - 6.4.4 REFLECTING ON CHALLENGES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
  - 6.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
  - 6.5.1 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
  - 6.5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE
  - 6.5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TRAINING
  - 6.5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POTENTIAL POLICY IMPLEMENTATION
  - 6.6 CONCLUSION