Educational reconstructionism

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CHAPTER 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Introduction

The previous chapter dwelt on review of literature relevant to the study. In view of issues raised in the literature review, chapter 3 examines the theoretical framework on which the study is grounded. Theoretical concepts generated by educational Reconstructionists shall be used to help explain why the researcher has chosen to be guided by the theory of Educational Reconstructionism.

Educational Reconstructionism

Educational Reconstructionism, like any other contemporary educational theory, leads to programmes of reform in educational matters. It is a theory that is conditioned largely by experiences unique to education and as such, was found suitable in guiding the theoretical principles of the study. Cohen (1999:3) informs that Theodore Brameld (1904 – 1987) is the father of Reconstructionism although Ozmon and Craver (1986:137), on the other hand, acknowledge that Reconstructionism owes tremendous debt to John Dewey. From the literature reviewed, other scholars who also realise the impact of education on society include:
• George Counts (1889 – 1974) who recognizes that education is the means of preparing people for creating a new social order;
• Paulo Freire (1921 – 1997) who champions education and literacy as vehicle of social change;
• Harold Rugg who advocates for the movement as a crisis philosophy (Cohen, 1999:3; Kneller, 1971: 61).
Reconstructionism is simply defined as an attempt to change societal values and behaviours by using schools as the vehicle of change. Reconstruction theory draws its strength in the fact that society is not static and schools are there to pioneer change of such state of affairs. The theory promotes scientific problem-solving methods, naturalism and humanism (Ozmon and Craver, 1986:137). This means that the theory syncretises the past and the present in a harmonious way and this is made possible when education is used as a tool for both immediate and continuous change. Reconstructionism is basically a social theory which is concerned with the social and cultural fabric in which the human being functions. The theory focuses on social and cultural conditions and how these can be adapted for human participation and this is the niche of the present study.
In support of educational reconstruction, Ozmon and Craver (1986:134) note that the theory has two major premises which are:
• Society is in need of constant reconstruction or change;
• Such social change involves both a reconstruction of education and the use of education in reconstructing society.
The two premises show that there is a closely intertwined relationship between social change and educational reconstruction. There arises a symbiotic relationship in the process. Reconstructionist educators world-wide feel that the present day society is facing a huge crisis that the school must address hence the need for a re-look into the school curriculum in search for survival of the society.

Re-examination of African Traditional Education

Woolman (2001:30) acknowledges that African Traditional Education (ATE) still exists in Africa and provides socialisation for many youth who may never get the chance to be enrolled in formal schools. Due to extreme cultural diversity in Africa there are equally varying forms of ATE. However, there are notable common elements.
Most of the ATE is informal and takes place in the context of family and community. ATE is therefore a non formal way of imparting knowledge to the young. It is a community responsibility and uses a child’s work experience with his father in farming and crafts or her mother in domestic chores to teach him/her immediate knowledge and skills. In ATE, education is for every child and exists for the purpose of strengthening the community. The aim of ATE is aptly put across by Castle (1966:39) as:
… to conserve the cultural heritage of family, clan and tribe, to adapt children to their physical environment and teach them how to use it, to explain to them that their own future and that of the community depended on the perpetuation and understanding of their tribal institutions, on the laws, language and values they had inherited in the past (own emphasis).
In a nutshell ATE socialises the young for the society in culture, laws and values. It focuses on the African ideal of socially-centered human development. The ideal of communal participation is reinforced by immersion in traditions through dance, song, story, involvement with others, exposure to cooperative work and ancestral worship (Woolman, 2001:30). This study regards these as being very important even today and should be reintroduced in today’s curriculum.
ATE is practical and relevant. Learning is by doing including observation, imitation and participation. Kenyatta (1965:119-120) hails ATE as:
…knowledge thus acquired is related to a practical need, and … is merged into activity and can be recalled when that activity is again required. Behaviour also is learned from doing things together, and is therefore directed to social activities from the outset.
ATE is thus intertwined with cultural traditions and no alienation is experienced. Drop outs which are a common element of formal education are not known to ATE. This is because ATE integrates intellectual training, character building, manual activities and physical education (Woolman 2001:31). Each child finds interest in at least one of these areas. In addition it is through these aspects that children develop the following critical characteristics:
• devotion to duty;
• good character;
• appreciation of culture;
• specific vocational skills;
• sense of belonging (Fafunwa, 1982:9).
Advantages of African Traditional Education can thus be drawn by contrasting it with Western Education as tabulated below.
The evaluation of ATE provides sound ground for arguing for many educational reform strategies. It helps in reclaiming cultural and authentic African values. Kenyatta (1965:118) argues that education must maintain the traditional structures of family, kinship, sex and age group if African societies are to remain stable. Blyden in Woolman (2001:31) also claims, “…real literacy…can be taugh t in an African language and should extend to the entire population.”
However, some critics might want to argue that such type of education would sacrifice any possibility of a scientific or technological revolution. To this, Mazrui (1978:36) suggests that Africa needs a dual solution of Africanising humanities while boosting technical and vocational training. Africa must work out new strategies and try to mould a new human kind. Reconstruction of African education is the only answer as shall be illustrated in the next section.

Educational Reconstructionism in Africa

The debate on language policy and language planning has been dogging African governments since attainment of independence and up to now the debate is still raging on (Magwa, 2008:9). Language planning is as important as any other aspect of economic development and the place of language planning should therefore be in the national development plan, Magwa (ibid) continues to argue. However, it is quite disheartening to note that African languages still play second fiddle to foreign languages in education from primary through secondary up to university levels. Makanda (2009:3) concurs by asserting that African languages are seen as liabilities since all former colonial countries continue to carry out official communication in those foreign languages.
Owing to the inheritance situation in language policies in African states the status of indigenous languages remains inferior to the languages of colonialists and it is high time the situation is changed. Makanda (ibid) notes that lamenting the imbalances and inadequacies of language policies in Africa is a general trend at various meetings discussing African languages. Sadly the same findings and suggestions come up with nothing concrete that comes out of the outcry. As Makanda (ibid) puts it, the reason for non action could be that the meetings are mainly comprised of academics and government representatives who have no capacity to put the sound recommendations into practice. This study suggests employment of the school curriculum as the most suitable platform for implementing language policy changes that are urgently needed in the African society today. There is need for a paradigm shift on the current school curriculum to consider African languages as core from primary up to high school.
Languages place people in positions of power and economic strength, power to gain employment, power to function in a political environment and power to access government and business, puts Magwa (2008:14). In light of this, African governments are therefore busy re-colonising themselves in the name of globalisation and modernisation in the wrong sense as they focus more on foreign languages on the peril of indigenous languages. In this study the argument is that mother-tongue education and its use is the missing link in all efforts towards the development of the African continent. Africans have been denied the advantage of using their indigenous languages in matters of national development such as human resources development and management. This study calls for reconstruction of the curriculum in addressing such important aspects, and some African countries have been making attempts to do that. Indigenous languages can be harnessed and developed if carefully planned for the overall interest of the African nation as Magwa (2008:11) propounds.
In modern Africa reforming inherited educational systems that largely functioned to maintain colonial order of dependency and elitism has been an essential task of nation-building (Woolman, 2001:27). Reconstruction of curriculum to reflect indigenous traditions, social change and empowerment has been advocated by African critical theorists from the nineteenth century to the present. This section of the chapter surveys African reform thought and curriculum development in certain countries. Focus is on the inclusion of African languages in the school curriculum. Unless African languages are regarded with pride by those who use them, they continue to have a low status. Through educational reforms the attempt is to try and integrate traditional culture with the demands of modernisation for a better society.
The relationship between education and national development is of critical concern in Africa and particularly in Zimbabwe. Education should function as an agency of cultural transmission as well as change and not building what is continually modified by new conditions. Under colonialism, cultural diversity was submerged by the exclusion of most African traditions from education. Reconstruction approach would thus identify the common values within diverse traditions and integrate these with modern content and skills.
Educational reconstruction in Africa aims to build a common civic culture based on mutual respect for cultural differences and acceptance of social compact based on global standards for human rights (Woolman, 2001:28). Colonialism in Africa resulted in a peculiar type of psychological dependency which has made the reassertion of African culture and identity an important part of African nation-building. Nationalism implies something original or unique about the people who live in the country. Thus educational revival should involve “… the study and presentatio n of indigenous cultures, languages, and natural environments and a full renaissance of African peoples” (Woolman, ibid). In any movement of this kind, schools should play a key role and it implies re-engineering of the curriculum to have such issues aboard.
It is sad to note that economic development has become a dominant force influencing education policy. In that sense education is regarded as the key to economic development yet such growth results from complex relationships between many variables rather than any simple one-to-one interaction between schools and jobs. For example, there is need to consider growth from the stand point of human resources needed to sustain manufacturing and services. National growth occurs when education is inclusive and beneficial to all sectors of the population. Education, therefore, has socio-cultural and economic effects and these should be reflected in the school curriculum. Thus reconstruction becomes necessary in the African school curriculum.
Education, in Africa in general and particularly in Zimbabwe, is being focused through the lens of the philosophy of educational reconstruction in this study. The issues of reconstruction, educational policy and curriculum development are also examined in this study to analyse the extent of decolonisation and re-integration of traditional African educational values and social organisation in school programmes after independence. That way some insights and remedial strategies for reconstruction theory are presented.
Since independence, the role of African education has been closely interwoven with the quest for national development and modernisation. Inherited colonial systems were expanded and modified to serve new economic and social needs identified by new African governments (Woolman, ibid). The kind of education developed, in turn, created new problems for nation building. African intellectuals have critically evaluated goals and practice of education after independence and their thought seems to share many ideas/views with the reconstruction perspective. Reconstruction regards contemporary education as most effective when it integrates the values and strengths of traditional culture with the knowledge and skills required by new conditions of modern life. This is in line with the rediscovery of the roots of African identity in the pre-colonial past.
To justify choice of Reconstructionism as a guiding theory in this study, focus will be made on three areas namely;
• Evaluation of colonial education;
• Critique of post-colonial education;
• Educational alternatives for an authentic African identity. (Adopted and adapted from Woolman, 2001:29)

Evaluation of colonial education in Zimbabwe

It is important to look back at colonial education because its structure conditioned the reactions that led to reform efforts in the African post-colonial era. Ajayi in Woolman (2001:29) and Rwantabangu (2011:4) criticise schools for neglecting African culture and history, especially in mission schools. Such schools are alleged to have caused Africans to lose self respect and love for their races. African scholars like James Johnson and Edwards Blyden who call for the inclusion of African heritage in curriculum. Blyden, for instance, urges the study of African languages in schools as they are repositories of tradition (Ajayi in Woolman, 2001:29). To other African scholars like Uchendu (1979) in Woolman (2001:29) the purpose of all colonial education was subordination of Africans. African scholars conclude that colonial schools provided education that preserved and promoted colonial domination. Generally, from an African perspective, colonial education looks negative in the sense that it undermined traditional societies in two ways namely:
• By introducing an individualistic Euro-centric value system that is foreign to African communal mores; and
• By isolating students from life and needs of their community.
(Mavhunga, 2008:32-37; Woolman, 2001:29)
In agreement with the two ways above, Rwomire (1998:19) also extensively describes the effects of colonial education to include the following:
• imperial domination;
• economic exploitation;
• economic inequality;
• social stratification;
• cultural and intellectual servitude;
• devaluation of traditional culture;
• curricula that is irrelevant to the real needs of the society.
From the above list one is justified in concluding that colonial education was not at all relevant for the African.
In the same vein, Mazrui (1978:16) also identifies psychological de-ruralisation and cultural discontinuity of the rural urban divide as attributes, rather ills, of colonial education. Similarly Rwantabangu (2011:5) decries that reliance on foreign languages in the school curriculum has negatively affected the efficiency of African education systems because it has culminated in:
• semi-literacy;
• school failure;
• massive educational wastage.
In light of the foresaid, this study argues that African languages are the rightful vehicle of African culture as well as potential channels of science and technology in order to offset the imbalance that has been set by colonial education.
From the few scholars that have been cited above, it becomes crystal clear that colonial education in Africa has failed to achieve the intended outcomes of education in the true sense. The problem was that most African countries took a short cut by adopting exoglossic language policies, in which the colonial language was adopted as the official language and in some cases also served as the national language (Magwa, 2008:14). Colonial experience is very relevant to language planning and policy of language education in Zimbabwe for the country also inherited from the then Rhodesia a racially designed system of education to serve and promote white interests and perpetuate the subjugation of blacks by whites.
Policies under the British South African Company (BSAC) rule set apart English as the official language and the tendency was to regard African languages as crude and uncivilised (Ngara, 1982:23; Magwa 2008:100). English language occupied a central position in the curriculum, whereas Shona and Ndebele received minimal attention in black schools and non in white schools. The thinking that guided native education and language policies was determined by European perceptions of African culture, aspirations and potentials with respect to their own aspirations for the indigenous population.
The BSAC government officials were not interested in anything else for Africans except manual labour and practical training. Their interest is summarized by the popular saying among many scholars which says that, the native was and should always have been the ‘hewer of wood and the drawer of water’. The colonial feared the academic educational development of Africans more than they feared anything else in their relationship with them. On the other hand, expertise in African languages by colonial agents was only a valuable asset in the exercise of colonial power. It actually enhanced the BSAC’s ability to control Africans.
Colonial policies in Rhodesia were meant to ‘educate’ Africans for tribal levels thus limiting them to participate in national affairs except to function as cheap labour force (Magwa, 2008: 108). Education was conducted solely through the English medium while the home language was used at elementary stages of education. After seven years of primary education an African was expected to be able to speak English fluently, read the newspaper with understanding, and most importantly, follow instruction without problem.
Selection into Form 1 was based on grade 7 Mathematics and English whereas Shona/Ndebele and General Knowledge only provided additional support for an individual’s fitness either to be enrolled in secondary schools or for employment. Every opportunity was created and used to empower English while suppressing indigenous African languages. Thus English was firmly entrenched as the language of government, business, media, education, training, social mobility and wider communication. Consequently, African languages became prevalent for the not-so-important family, social and cultural realms.
The discussion above shows that Zimbabwe’s linguistic status is no different from that of many former colonial states in Africa. The education systems in colonial Africa were characterized by problems, some of which have been explored above. Having identified the root causes of the problem, the next section of this chapter looks at how far post colonial education has gone in addressing these ills.

Critique of post colonial education in Africa

It is no doubt that on attainment of independence, African governments invested heavily in educational expansion and diversification (Mavhunga, 2008:37; Woolman, 2001:29). The investments have realised gains in enrolment, literacy, skilled human resources and educational facilities, in spite of limited resources. However, the move has failed to improve life for most Africans and at the same time continues to unsettle the society.
Education instead has divided the society into different categories which cannot communicate with each other effectively. Schools still perpetuate the rift between school and community, thus estranging the youth from the cultural heritage and productive processes of their own environment. The educated African has become a misfit amongst his own because education has not managed to link the rural and the urban. As such there a myriad of problems associated with post-colonial education and these shall be explored below.
Instead of education providing solutions to the society, Uchendu (Woolman, ibid: 29) identifies problems that have resulted from post-colonial education. They include:
• widening rural-urban disparities;
• ethnic and geographic inequality of access;
• difference between type of education offered;
• submerged traditional roles of education;
• submerged socialisation of the youth;
• submerged cultural transmission.
All these show that such an educational provision is just but an extension of the same economic exploitation experienced during colonialism therefore, there is need for reconstruction. The last three of the problems listed above are of great concern in this study and the study maintains they can only be offered to the youth through the study of African languages.
In the same manner, Mavhunga (2008:37-40) and Rwomire (1998:8) concur on the numerous shortcomings of post – colonial education. They separately identify the following short-comings of post – colonial education:
• irrelevant curricula;
• outdated methods;
• high drop-out rate;
• overcrowding;
• production of docile, dependent, low on initiative and immoral graduates;
• inculcation of a culture of egocentric materialism;
• decline of collective responsibility;
• contributing to unemployment.
Surely the post – colonial education seems to be churning out people who cannot solve problems they meet either as individuals or society as a whole. Education should equip the learner with the necessary skills and qualities to feed into the human capital needs of the society. Mazrui (1978:13) and Magwa (2008:16) regard the problems identified above as psychological effects of neo-colonial education by remarking that most educated Africans are not aware that they are still in cultural bondage to the west. To change such a mindset the curriculum needs a complete overhaul to match challenges of the time.
Magwa (2008:16) decries that in Zimbabwe there is perpetual denial of indigenous languages to be given a chance to flourish and help promote African culture and identity, hence the need for an urgent redress of the anomaly. To that effect Magwa notes that Zimbabwe needs what he calls a ‘final push’ towards the total decolonization of the minds through the use of indigenous languages. The zeal which Zimbabwe is showing in the fight for Agrarian Reform is the kind that is also expected in defending indigenous cultures and languages. This can only be realized if indigenous African languages are afforded better currency in the school system and economic sphere. Unless African languages are viewed with pride by the school curriculum, there arises a situation whereby human resources management and development in related areas suffer.
The evaluation of colonial and post-colonial education has persuaded some African scholars to re-examine the objectives, methods and outcomes of traditional, pre-colonial forms of education (Mavhunga, 2008:41- 46; Woolman, 2001:30) and consequently guide the route for post-colonial social reconstruction through education. This is examined in the next section.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Abstract.
List of tables
List of appendices
List of abbreviations
CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
1.1 Preamble
1.2 Statement of the problem
1.3 Aim of the study
1.4 Justification
1.5 Literature review
1.6 Research methods
1.7 Theoretical framework
1.8 Scope of study
1.9 Definition of terms
1.10 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Rationale
2.2 Multilingualism
2.3 Functions of language in society
2.4 Language and education
2.5 Language planning
2.6 Language policy in Zimbabwe
2.7 Linguistic attitude and perception
2.8 Language and human resources
2.9 The gap filled in by this study
2.10 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Educational reconstructionism
3.2 Re-examination of African traditional education
3.3 Educational Reconstructionism in Africa
3.4 Reconstructionist theory and the school
3.5 Lessons for Zimbabwe
3.6 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Research design
4.2 Defining population of study
4.3 Sampling
4.4 Data collection and data collection tools
4.5 Ensuring trustworthiness of data
4.6 Data presentation
4.7 Data analysis and interpretation
4.8 Ethical measures
4.9 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Baseline state of sampled population
5.2 Data pertaining to sampled population
5.3 Findings on major themes and research questions
5.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Summary
6.2 Findings
6.3 Recommendations
Bibliography
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