EXECUTIVE COACHING AND COACHING – DIFFERENCES DEFINED 

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CHAPTER 3 THE HISTORY OF COACHING IN SOUTH AFRICA

INTRODUCTION

Per Walker (2004), coaching as an intervention started around 1980. This Chapter explores the development of coaching both in South Africa as well as the source of its origins and the association of coaching with other human development interventions. The fundamental differences between mentoring and coaching were also analysed and extrapolated to as far as relevant in the South African context.

THE EVOLUTION OF COACHING AS A DISCIPLINE

Coaching as a discipline was new in relation to other people development interventions. Coaching per se was drawn from the insights of a range of professionals, psychotherapists, educators, sports coaches and business consultants (Walker, 2004). Akin to the way that counselling developed in the 1960‟s, the discipline of coaching as an independent intervention emerged in Europe and the United States of America in the 1980‟s (Walker, 2004).
The diagram below describes how the people development industry has developed and stratifies business/ executive coaching, life coaching, therapy, counselling, mentoring and supervision, in as far as this is possible (Walker, 2004:18).
Walker (2004) also provided a useful interdisciplinary model of people development where the innate differences between outcomes orientated foci and process orientated foci were described. This interdisciplinary model provided a useful reference tool for practitioners identifying which intervention would be most appropriate whether in the case of an individual or a team and also at the appropriate level within the organisation.
The tools provided by Walker (2004) formed a critical base from which to assess and create a situational analysis, which was one of the pillars of this research. In assessing the current status of executive coaching in healthcare, the ability on the part of the researcher would be determined by the ability to distinguish between organisational interventions. As such the outcomes would be clear and provide an accurate picture of the status quo in respect of executive coaching.
Walker‟s model would be used to provide the research participant with insight and the ability to identify clearly which intervention, if at all had been used in that particular set of organisational circumstances.
In Walker‟s historical classification (2004: 19) provided for ease of reference below, developments were described chronologically ranging from the 1850‟s and the development of modern medicine to the most recent development which was that of life coaching around 1990.
Whereas the older disciplines as described by Walker had been supervised and accredited, coaching remained largely unsupervised and unaccredited in South Africa providing significant opportunity for the professionalisation of the coaching industry in this country (Rostron, 2006).
Rostron (2005) traced coaching back to Aristotle and Socrates but conceded that the coaching terminology originated in the world of sport. Current day coaching had evolved from initiatives driven during the 1970‟s and 1980‟s when large organisations began to move away from rigid hierarchical structures to structures and systems which encouraged participation amongst employees and teams (Rostron, 2005). Training focused on teamwork and empowerment was directed at individuals within the organisational context (Rostron, 2005). In the 1990‟s however, organisations began to focus on change as well as aligning personal development and growth with organisational change. Organisations had become value and purpose driven as opposed to rule and hierarchy bound, inspiring changes in the interventions also, hence the development of coaching particularly in the South African context. The South African context had created the impetus and opportunity for other forms of change in a number of industries, not least the people development industry given the speed of legislative and political change (Rostron, 2005).
Rostron (2005) asserted that the field of professional coaching emerged as a natural response to the demands and approaches of management of life and business in the 1980‟s. Similarly, Hudson (1998) described the complexity of society and the rate of change in the 1980‟s, individuals increasingly asking for help within the organisational context around matters such as:

• personal development;
• career planning;
• transitions and organisational mergers;
• individual and team performance;
• retrenchment and personal marketing following retrenchment;
• stress and burnout;
• leadership training;
• scenario development and building; and
• individual and organisational renewal.
  With the reduction in the number of middle managers in the 1970‟s and 1980‟s (Hudson, 1998), entrepreneurial leadership influenced and shaped the growing profession of coaching both in the United States, the United Kingdom and Europe. This was also encouraged by the need for a more self-motivated, challenged and imaginative workforce in these countries (Rostron, 2005). Similarly, work with individuals and systems in the late 1980‟s accelerated a move to corporate coaching (Hudson, 1998). The views of Hudson (1998), and Rostron (2005), resonated with the model of Walker (2004).
  During the 1980‟s employees began questioning organisations about who could be used as a resource during times of personal turbulence and organisations began to recognise the need to support individuals (Van Rensburg, 2005). The practitioner most suited to providing support at this juncture was identified as “the coach”.
  Coaching was also seen as a method of developing skills and competencies and executive coaching developed from this view in the late 1980‟s (Van Rensburg, 2005)

MENTORING VS COACHING – DIFFERENCES AND DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS

INTRODUCTION

Hughes (2003: 8) postulated that the concept of the mentor appeared for the first time in Homer‟s “The Odyssey”. Homer described in the book how he himself was an old and deeply respected man into whose hands Odysseus had placed the kingdom of Ithaca, while Odysseus went off to fight the war with Troy. The character “Mentor” had the task of raising Telemachus, the son of Odysseus. In the event of Odysseus not returning from the war, Telemachus would become king, and so appeared the first mentor in literature as we know it. In this context, the mentor represented a person in whom trust was placed to hold the space of another. The mentor however was not just a guardian but also a guide who instilled knowledge and provided guidance on a journey to a clearly specified destination. While on the journey the mentor may also have inspired the “student” to reflect inwardly so as to enrich the process. The process then was experiential, and not simply the passing of knowledge from sage to student.
O‟Reilly (2008) in current times, explained that having or acting as a mentor in the workplace did not involve an exchange of money. A mentor provided free advice and a relationship based on mutual respect, and could be sought within the particular field or industry.

MENTORING

Hughes (2003) provided clear insight into what mentoring was not. In summary mentoring was not teaching, coaching, being a best friend, or eldering. In the teaching relationship, data and information would be exchanged, but rarely knowledge. In the coaching relationship the coach sought to understand how the coachee learnt, in order to determine whether the coach can add value. A great coach would know that every coachee could not be coached as their own method of exchanging skills and practices would not meet all learning styles. In the case of the best friend, the relationship was emotional and mutual.
In the mentoring relationship, the mentee‟s questions formed the basis of the dialogue. Eldering in turn involved a relationship where one person had been granted authority to provide advice and assist with the maturity process. Unlike mentors, elders had responsibilities to a wide number within the “tribe”.
Hughes (2003) and Tracey (2008) identified the functions a mentor performed:

• Asked questions that guided the mentee to the deepest possible learning about themselves and enabled the mentee to set goals.
• Conducted a dialogue where both parties gained essential knowledge and the mentee was able to overcome obstacles.
• Required that both parties commenced the work together as apprentices in the nZen context with the “mind of a beginner” (Hughes, 2003: 10).
• Included the three (3) ways of learning in order to identify the knowledge, skill and expertise required:
• Data – Information – Knowledge.
• Seeking – Journeying – Listening – Exchanging – Integrating.
• Breaking away – Pausing – Integrating.
• Required that both parties agree how the process would end and discussed issues beyond boundaries. The relationship assumed that when the mentee had found the answers within, the relationship would end.
• Each party would be able to answer with an open mind as to whether the person was best suited to forming the questions and assisting with the dialogue of the process in order to find the answers that would best enhance self-awareness in the pursuit of happiness.
  Similarly, O‟Reilly (2008) and Coxon (2008) supported creating a mentoring programme provided the purpose of the programme was understood. Guidelines and membership policies should be understood. O‟Reilly (2008) emphasised the voluntary nature of the programme and indicated that the programme should consist of a supportive group of professionals who sought to help others coming into the particular profession. In keeping with the view of Hughes (2003), O‟Reilly (2008) emphasised the value of regularly scheduled meetings. The relationships created in the mentoring programme should be fostered by members checking in for feedback.
  CHAPTER 1 – SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT OF THIS STUDY 
  1.1 INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM ANALYSIS
  1.2 LEADERSHIP AND THE SOUTH AFRICAN CHALLENGES IN HEALTHCARE
  1.3 PROBLEM DEMARCATION
  1.4 DEFINITIONS OF TERMINOLOGY
  1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES, PROPOSITIONS AND SUPPORTING LITERATURE
  1.6 METHODOLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS, METHOD AND EMPIRICAL PROCEDURES
  1.7 IMPORTANCE OF THIS STUDY FOR BUSINESS LEADERSHIP
  1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY
  1.9 LAYOUT OF RESEARCH REPORT
  CHAPTER 2 – LEADERSHIP, THE ORGANISATION AND THE RELATIONSHIP WITH
  COACHING 
  2.1 INTRODUCTION
  2.2 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LEADERSHIP AND PERFORMANCE
  2.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE “FIRM” FROM A SINGLE MINDED PROFIT CENTRE TO A DYNAMIC ORGANISATION
  2.4 INTRODUCING EMOTION INTO THE WORKPLACE CONTEXT
  2.5 CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AND DIVERSITY
  2.6 SOLUTIONS TO ORGANISATIONAL PROBLEMS
  2.7 LEADERSHIP STYLES DURING TIMES OF CHANGE
  2.8 THE ETHICS OF LEADERSHIP AND THE “VALUE” OF VALUE SYSTEMS
  2.9 DEFINING LEADERSHIP
  2.10 LEADERSHIP AND CULTURE
  2.11 WOMEN IN LEADERSHIP ROLES
  2.12 GROOMING LEADERS
  2.13 CONCLUSION
  CHAPTER 3 – THE HISTORY OF COACHING IN SOUTH AFRICA 
  3.1 INTRODUCTION
  3.2 THE EVOLUTION OF COACHING AS A DISCIPLINE
  3.3 MENTORING VS COACHING – DIFFERENCES AND DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS
  3.4 COACHING IN SOUTH AFRICA
  3.5 COACHING IN SOUTH AFRICAN CORPORATES
  3.6 EXECUTIVE COACHING IN HEALTHCARE IN SOUTH AFRICA
  3.7 CONCLUSION
  CHAPTER 4 – EXECUTIVE COACHING AND COACHING – DIFFERENCES DEFINED 
  4.1 INTRODUCTION
  4.2 COACHING FROM A MANAGERIAL PERSPECTIVE
  4.3 COACHING FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE ORGANISATION
  4.4 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COACH AND THE ETHICAL CHALLENGES
  4.5 OPPORTUNITIES FOR COACHING IN THE WORKPLACE
  4.6 OPPORTUNITIES FOR COACHING IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN HEALTHCARE
  CONTEXT
  4.7 THE BENEFITS OF EXECUTIVE COACHING FROM THE ORGANISATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
  4.8 EXECUTIVE COACHING AND EXECUTIVE COACHING MODELS
  4.9 MEASURING THE RETURN ON INVESTMENT DERIVED FROM EXECUTIVE
  COACHING
  4.10 CONCLUSION
  CHAPTER 5 – THE HEALTHCARE CONTEXT VIS A VIS MENTORING AND COACHING IN SOUTH AFRICA 
  5.1 INTRODUCTION
  5.2 THE CHALLENGE OF HIV/AIDS FOR HEALTHCARE IN SOUTH AFRICA
  5.3 LEADERSHIP REQUIREMENTS FOR THE SOUTH AFRICAN HEALTHCARE SECTOR 94
  5.6 A PASTORAL APPROACH TO COACHING AROUND HEALTHCARE CHALLENGES
  5.7 CHALLENGES FOR MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS
  5.8 CONCLUSION
  CHAPTER 6 – AN INTEGRATED MODEL FOR EXECUTIVE COACHING FOR PRIVATE HEALTHCARE IN SOUTH AFRICA 
  6.1 INTRODUCTION
  6.2 COACHING FRAMEWORK AND META MODEL
  6.3 THE COACHING MODEL AND THE RELEVANCE TO THE HEALTHCARE SECTOR
  6.4 THE COACHING MODEL AND THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
  CHAPTER 7 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, TECHNIQUES, PROCEDURES AND PROPOSITIONS 
  7.1 INTRODUCTION
  7.2 AIM AND PURPOSE OF THIS RESEARCH
  7.3 POPULATION, SAMPLE FRAME, SAMPLING AND SAMPLE SIZE
  7.4 RESEARCH DESIGN
  7.5 RESEARCH PROCESS
  7.6 DATA COLLECTION METHODS, TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES
  7.7 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF USING INTERNET BASED QUESTIONNAIRES AND TELEPHONIC INTERVIEWS
  7.8 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
  7.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
  7.10 PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED WITH THIS RESEARCH
  7.11 CONCLUSION
  CHAPTER 8 – OUTCOMES AND FINDINGS OF RESEARCH 
  8.1 INTRODUCTION
  8.2 CONCLUSION 164
  CHAPTER 9
  9.1 DISCUSSION OF ANALYSIS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
  9.2 THEMES EMANATING FROM THE PROCESS OF THE MODEL AND THEIR RELEVENCE TO THE LITERATURE STUDY AND CONCEPTUAL MODEL
  themes 171
  9.3 THEMES EMANATING FROM THE CONTENT OF THE MODEL
  9.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH AND THE IMPLICATIONS THEREOF
  9.5 IMPLICATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
  9.6 TOWARDS REFINING THE MODEL
  9.7 SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS ON EXECUTIVE COACHING IN S.A
  9.8 SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS ON IMPLEMENTING THE MODEL
  9.9 SUMMARY AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF THIS RESEARCH TO THE BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
  REFERENCES
  GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT
  THE CASE FOR AN EXECUTIVE COACHING MODEL FOR PRIVATE HEALTHCARE IN SOUTH AFRICA