Factors Affecting Post Partum Milk Production and Ovarian Activity 

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CHAPTER 2 Literature review Milk production in Cameroon Published in Livestock Research for Rural Development

Abstract

For centuries, milk production in Cameroon has been characterized by the traditional system using local zebu cows (Gudali, White Fulani, Red Fulani). However, this production has been insufficient reaching only an average of 3 litres per cow per day. Per capita annual consumption was 10kg in 1984. Since then improvement in production has been possible thanks to importations of high yielding breeds such as Holstein Friesian, Jersey and others. This gave room to other semi intensive and intensive production systems in such a way that in 1998 per capita production was 12.8kg. This is still far below 34kg per person for Africa and 294kg per person for Europe. In this study, research done in the area on milk production was reviewed. Constraints to increase production were summarized and proposals are made for the sustainable development of the dairy sector
Key words: Cameroon, cattle, dairy, milk, review

Introduction

Africa’s human population is growing at a rate of 3.1% per year (Ndituru, 1993). This population growth is prompting many governments to aim at a policy of food self sufficiency. Although efforts are being made to increase agricultural production, malnutrition is still a plague in many parts of the continent. Protein and micronutrients deficiencies continue to be persistent (Delgado et al, 1999). Over 800 million people worldwide suffer from malnutrition and hunger not only due to low food production and unequal distribution but also because poor people lack the income to acquire adequate quantities and qualities of food (Wilson et al, 1995). People of Sub-Saharan Africa consume foods that consist mainly of starch and oil. Milk and milk products, if sufficiently available, could efficiently correct these deficiencies and be part of most Africans’ diet. Besides improving nutrition and health of all members of the household, dairying also increases farmers’ incomes (ILRI, 1998). However, in 1999, per capita production of whole fresh milk in Africa was only 34kg /person compared to 294kg / person in Europe (adapted from FAO, 2000) with very large variations of consumption among regions of the same country. Such a deficit makes milk products expensive and not available to most people. This is seen in urban areas where prices go up in the hot season because of the shortage of milk from pastoralists (Kameni et al, 1999). The consequence of high prices is the reduced availability of milk products for vulnerable groups (Phelan 1994). These are children and people of low income. On the other hand the milk deficit calls for imports of milk products thus leading to a considerable drain on finances. von Massow (1984) drew attention to the increase in the volumes and values of dairy imports into Sub-Saharan Africa even though these countries faced a serious shortage of foreign exchange. Dairy imports made up about half the total milk consumption in West and central Africa (Von Massow, 1989), increasing throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, at an annual growth rate of 10% or more. Consequently, there are sustained efforts to develop domestic milk production in Sub-Saharan Africa (Walshe et al, 1991).
Formal research on dairy cattle started in Cameroon in the early 1970’s (Tchoumboue and Jousset, 1982) on imported and local cattle. However, there is no comprehensive report available providing information on the key aspects of the research done on this topic in Cameroon to this day. In Sub-Saharan countries, because of inadequate available literature, there is always a risk of duplicating research and therefore wasting time and resources. There is also a need for information to be gathered on the subject and made available to policy makers. Consequently, this paper reviews and discusses work carried out in Cameroon in relation to dairying, suggesting ways to improving the sector and proposing lines for subsequent research.

Sites of dairy cattle production in Cameroon

The Republic of Cameroon is located in Central Africa and ranges from the equatorial forest to the Sahelian zone in Lake Tchad with a total land area of 475 440 km² and a human population of 14.693 million (FAO, 1999). The population is expected to reach 20.5 million in 2010 (Njoya et al, 1999). It is administratively divided into 10 regions covering five agro ecological zones. The cattle population stands at 6 million heads. Over 90% of the estimated cattle number is to be found in four regions, the Far North, the North, the Adamaoua and the North West Province (Kameni et al, 1999). The two regions that have been particularly associated with dairy production in Cameroon are as follows:

• • The Adamaoua Plateau is situated at 1100 m above sea level. Weather conditions have been reported by Pamo and Yonkeu (1986). The climate is tropical, usually described as sudano-guinean, with a characteristic unimodal rainfall pattern. Two major seasons are prevalent, the wet season which runs from April (mean precipitations of 128.8 mm) to October (107.2 mm) and the dry season from November to March. The maximum monthly rainfall ever recorded was 325.6 mm and occurred in July. Total annual precipitation ranges from 1392 to 1982 mm per year. Mean relative humidity and temperature are 67.3% and 22.0 ^oC, respectively. Minimum and maximum temperatures are 10 and 34 ^oC, respectively. The hottest months are from November to January. Frost is rare on the highlands. Natural vegetation is woody savannah. It is a sudano-guinean type which is interspersed with Daniellia and Lophira spp trees. Major grasses have been described by Piot and Rippstein (1975) with predominant species being Hyparrhenia and Panicum spp.The principal improved pastures developed on station are Brachiaria and Stylosanthes spp.
  • The Western Highlands, another dairy producing region, is located in the mid and high altitude zone of the country which lies between latitudes 5°20′ and 7° North and longitude 9°40′ and 11°10′ East of the Equator. The surface area of the Region is 17,910 km² covering 1/6 of the country’s land area. Altitudes range from 300 to 3000 m above sea level. The climate is marked by a dry season from November to mid March and a rainy season from mid March to October. Rainfall ranges between 1300-3000 mm with a mean of 2000 mm. Minimum and maximum temperatures have means of 15.50°C and 24.5°C, respectively; although temperatures can go above 30°C. There are three types of soils: volcanic, hydromorphic and ferralitic. The human population is estimated at 1.82 million inhabitants, being one of the highest population densities in the country, with at least 79 inhabitants per km² and a population growth rate of 3.1% (Winrock International, 1992). The agricultural population is estimated at 72% with 160,025 farm families. Agricultural products from low to medium altitude include: oil palm, cocoa, Robusta coffee, fruit trees, cocoyam, maize, small livestock, rice, and groundnuts. The high altitude (above 1400m) products include: solanum potato, Arabica coffee, vegetable and small and large ruminants (PNVRA, 2002).The region is the third major cattle producing area (500,000 cattle) after the North and the East. The main vegetation is Savannah. Pastures are dominant with Sporobolus africanus. But the following species can be encountered: Pennisetum clandestinum and Pennisetum purpureum, Loudetia, Hyparrhenia, Urelytrum fasciculatun, Panicum phramitoides, Paspalum arbiculare. Some improved species have also been introduced such as Brachiaria spp, Trypsacum laxum, Stylosanthes spp and tree legumes (Merlin et al, 1986; Njoya et al, 1999). The Western Highland of Cameroon is an area free of Tse Tse fly.

Traditional dairy production

In Africa, pastoralists derive up to 75% of their food needs from milk (Galvin, 1985). These pastoralists own about 50% of Africa’s livestock (de Leeuw et al, 1995). In Cameroon, they own most of the cattle population. According to Kameni et al (1994), most of the available cow’s milk in Cameroon is produced by the Fulani cattle men. In the Fulani tribe, cattle production is the main activity. Their life revolves around this activity and most of their income is derived from it. Crop production is marginal and is carried out by occasional labour. The cattle men practice a pastoralist type of management whereby cattle are held in the vicinity of the village or urban area during the wet season, and then taken to lower pastures during the hot months in search of better grazing (Douffissa, 1988 and 1993). In this traditional system, milk is considered as a by-product of beef production using breeds such as the Gudali, Red Fulani and White Fulani (Bos indicus). More than 90% of calvings occur during the rainy season (Njoya et al, 1999). Milk off take starts from 1 to 3 months post-calving. Calves are usually weaned at 10.5 months. A number of lactating animals are left on the camping area while the rest of the herd is taken for grazing. Milking is all done by hand and any milk not required by the owners is either boiled and sold as liquid milk or allowed to sour naturally to provide a base for a sorghum or maize porridge (Kameni et al, 1999). The milk can also be used for exchange for grain. When cattle herds reside around urban centres, they represent the major, perhaps only, source of fresh milk for urban dwellers. When cattle herds reside in remote areas, only a very limited amount of milk might occasionally be sold for cash because the camping areas are usually far away from urban centres and schools. So a major constraint on the supply of milk to urban populations is the effective marketing of the supplies of milk potentially available from pastoral herds. An added complication is that the demand for milk in the urban centres is greater in the dry season than in the wet season. However, in the dry season with cows being on transhumance, pastoralists are unable to take advantage of this increased demand while in the wet season, when cattle herds may be adjacent to urban centres, demand for milk is low and prices are depressed. The opportunity to capitalize on the demand for milk, coupled to the need to promote more productive dairy systems, has led to the importation of European type dairy cattle.

Exotic dairy cows in Cameroon

The first exotic dairy cattle were imported into Cameroon in the 1930s (Tambi, 1991) by expatriates. They were of the German Brown breed (Atekwana and Maximuangu, 1981). At the end of the Second World War, these cattle were replaced with Holstein Friesian cattle and an Austrian breed (Pinzgauer) in Buea. At the same time, the Montbéliard breed was introduced in Dschang and Jakiri for crossbreeding with local cattle. In 1964, a dairy experimental station was set up at Bambui (Njwe, 1984) and in 1967 Brown Swiss heifers were imported for crossbreeding with N’Dama cattle. Montbéliard semen was imported in 1975 for crossbreeding with Gudali (Bos indicus) females in the northern part of the country. Immediately preceding this, the Heifer Project International (HPI) signed an agreement with the government and the importation by HPI of Jersey cattle, Holstein Friesian cattle and semen started and continues to the present time (HPI, 1999). This same organisation has trained dairy farmers to practice a zero grazing system with Holstein Friesian cows imported from Ireland since 1994. Importations of exotic cattle resulted in the development of more specialist systems of dairying.

Semi-intensive system and crop and livestock integration

These systems of dairying use crossbred cattle with improved pasture grazing and supplements such as rice bran, palm kernel cake, wheat bran, and soya beans, all in small amounts. Fencing is common as is rotational grazing. Animals often make use of farm residues such as maize stovers, ground nut and bean haulms, rice straw, and banana forage. They are also supplemented with agro-industrial by products such as cottonseed cake, brewers grains and palm kernel cake and tree legumes such as Leucaena spp and other legumes (Stylosanthes spp, Desmodium spp). In the Western highlands, such systems are practiced by the Tikar (native) population (Njoya et al, 1999).

Intensive system of livestock production

Intensive systems involve on the one hand a few modern commercial farms; on the other hand, the cut and carry system where animals are kept in stables and supplemented with concentrate. It is these systems which use purebred high yielding dairy cows (HPI, 1999). Small scale farmers suffer however from a very heavy work load because of the lack of machinery. Efficient ways of management need to be developed in order to lighten this burden.

DEDICATION
DECLARATION
ABBREVIATIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHAPTER 1 General Introduction
CHAPTER 2  Literature Review  Milk productgion in Cameroon  
2.1. Abstract.
2.2. Introduction.
2.3. Sites of dairy cattle production in Cameroon
2.4. Traditional dairy production .
2.5. Introduction of exotic dairy cows in Cameroon
2.5.1. Semi-intensive system and crop and livestock integration
2.5.2. Intensive system
2.6. Productivity of breeds used for milk production
2.7. Domestic milk production and demand
2.8. The urban demand of milk.
2.9. Constraints to milk production
2.10. Milk processing
2.11. Marketing
2.12. The way ahead
CHAPTER 3 Surveys
3.1. Participatory Rural Appraisal of Dairy Farms
3.2.Economic Opportunity Survey of Small Scale Dairy Farms
CHAPTER 4 Factors Affecting Post Partum Milk Production and Ovarian Activity 
4.1. Validation of A Human Progesterone Enzyme Immunoassay (Eia) Kit
4.2. Post Partum Ovarian Activity and Milk Production
4.3. Effect of Pre-Partum Feed Supplementation on Post Partum Ovarian Activity
CHAPTER 5 Cattle health
5.1. Prevalence of Brucella Abortus Antibodies in Serum of Holstei
CHAPTER 6  Impact of Management Interventions in Small-Scale Dairy Farms 
6.1. Abstract
6.2. Introduction
6.3. Materials and methods
6.4. Result and discussion
6.5. References
CHAPTER 7 Improving the dairy production sector in Cameroon
7.1. Abstract
7.2. Introduction
7.3. Results of the integrated interventions
7.4. Cattle health
7.5. Impact of interventions
7.6. Guidelines for improving the dairy sector
7.7. Evaluation of the integrated approach in improving dairy systems
7.8. Conclusion
7.9. References
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