GENDER DIFFERENCES ASSOCIATED WITH JOB SATISFACTION

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CHAPTER 3 CONTEXTUAL VARIABLES: GENDER, CULTURE AND MANAGERIAL LEVEL

As seen in Chapter 2, various job determinants could have an impact on job satisfaction. This includes aspects such as the job itself, promotions, the role of supervisors and support received in the organisation. When investigating these aspects on a deeper level, it is clear that variables such as the gender of the employee, the culture they belong to as well as the hierarchical level they work at, could also influence the subjective experiences of job satisfaction. Clearly the above-mentioned factors are non-negotiable and therefore need special consideration. Consequently, this chapter highlights the impact, potential experiences and historical influences of being either male or female in modern South African organisations. It is evident in the chapter that the specific role demands as well as the socio-political circumstances inherited from the past, could all contribute significantly to perceptions regarding work. Moreover, the cultural framework from which employees act and perceive their communities and their world of work, are essential in developing a viewpoint not only about the organisation itself, but also about the determinants that could have an impact on job satisfaction. Finally, since the present study was specifically interested in the experiences of middle level managers, attention was paid not only to the general role and demands of managers, but also the general expectations related to middle level managers.

GENDER DIFFERENCES ASSOCIATED WITH JOB SATISFACTION

Due to the fact that more females are entering the workforce on a managerial level, it is of importance to management to identify any potential gender differences with regards to the levels of job satisfaction.

Overall job satisfaction

Alvesson and Billing (1997) argue that there are various reasons why one should pay attention to organisations in terms of gender. Organisations are seen as the backbone of society and by being part of it – either as employee, client or customer – a bidirectional relationship is created. Due to its role in the public domain as well as in the lives of employees, organisations have, in a sense, a moral responsibility in taking care of employees with regards to their experiences within the work situation and delivering the best possible product to the public.
However, it is evident that organisations largely neglected an important influence such as gender aspects up and to the 1980s (Hearn & Parkin, 1983). Mills (1988) points out that if gender was a topic of interest, it was normally viewed from a predominantly male perspective or where the opinions and behaviour of the majority of the workforce, which was males, were acknowledged. Consequently, this masculine dominance in both organisational life as well as in research and science had a profound impact on research questions being asked and answered (Martin, 1994). Many topics were never considered to be studied or questioned simply because it was not relevant to the male perspective. Also from a managerial point of view, it was assumed that the manager would be male, and therefore it supported the notion that research and organisational theory focused on the life and work of men (Martin, 1994).
With reference to job-design-job-satisfaction relationships in the workplace, it is argued that design decisions and options are often influenced by male dominated values and norms in the organisation. It is suggested that often policy makers prioritise aspects congruent with individual needs – and in many cases, needs associated with males, such as individualism and autonomy. These practices could possibly explain the level of job satisfaction for males, but not female satisfaction (Cullen, 1994). There is therefore ample reason to question theory and policies related to male samples since it may be unrealistic and inappropriate when applied to and associated with females (Fricko & Beehr, 1992).
Similar sentiments are relevant in science. Research into the world of work very often reflects unquestioned cultural assumptions and beliefs. Therefore, the traditional perception of leadership may be built upon a masculine, individualistic belief system (Lipman-Blumen, 1992). Collinson and Hearn (1996) support this notion by pointing out that the whole discipline of management is surrounded by a character of masculine bias.
It is clear, however, that the labour market has changed significantly in the past few decades. More females are employed in organisations and consequently the family roles have changed accordingly. In addition, there is also a belief that, from a South African perspective, the role of females is important due to the fact that they represent more than 50 per cent of the South African overall population. Female appointments in the workforce are also increasing on a daily basis (Firth-Cozens & West, 1991). Keightley (1995) rightly mentions that this shift in South African labour demographics can be viewed as one of the most significant changes in current labour markets (as cited in Firth-Cozens & West, 1991).
The literature illustrates a confusing picture regarding gender differences specifically focusing on job satisfaction. For example, Mottaz (1986) and Saner and Eyupoglu (2012) highlight the discrepancies in the literature with regards to levels of job satisfaction among both males and females. Some studies found females to be more satisfied, whereas others found the opposite. According to Saner and Eyupoglu (2012), the majority of recent research suggests that there are not really any clear differences in the levels of overall job satisfaction among the sexes.

Dimensions of job satisfaction

The picture becomes more complicated when considering the various dimensions of job satisfaction in addition to the overall level. Chiu (1998) also mentions the inconsistencies in the literature with regards to gender differences and job satisfaction.
According to Quinn, Staines and McCollough (1974), various studies found females experiencing higher levels of job satisfaction, others indicated males with higher levels of job satisfaction and then there were studies that showed no gender differences with regards to job values and perceptions. For example, when referring in particular to job satisfaction, Long (2005) reports evidence for females being more satisfied with their jobs than males. It was noted that women reported higher levels of overall job satisfaction, satisfaction with pay and satisfaction with work itself.
In order to investigate the assumption that females are happier at work than males, Long (2005) used an Australian database consisting of 13 696 participants. Participant responses were ranked on an eleven-point scale from 0 (completely dissatisfied) to 10 (completely satisfied). Questions posed concentrated on participant perceptions regarding flexibility at work, compensation, working hours, opinions regarding job security and overall levels of job satisfaction. The findings suggest that significant differences exist between males and females with lower educational levels and lower skilled work. However, no significant differences were found between males and females with higher skills and educational qualifications. It was clear from the results that those with higher educational achievement tend to be less satisfied with their work, however, this was more evident in the case of higher educated females than males. Clark (1997) explains such differences by suggesting that higher educated females had higher expectancies of their work than males who are generally used to a male-dominated work environment.
Hakim (1991) explains the differences by claiming that there are females in the workplace who view their job and career as primarily significant and those who view work as secondary to their family roles and responsibilities. Those who view their careers as primarily important will normally invest more time and money in personal development, training and education. In general, those who prioritise family and children tend to have fewer educational qualifications and often prefer part-time work. Due to lower investment levels and fewer expectations in the latter group, it is expected that these females will experience higher levels of job satisfaction in comparison with their colleagues who invest much more into their careers. Based on this theory, gender differences will never be a phenomenon of the past – it will rather be related to the relative importance of a career for women.
Sloane and Williams (2000) also support the assumption that males and females value various features of their jobs differently which will inevitably result in different job outcomes that could potentially contribute to job satisfaction. Mason (1995) argues that females are more satisfied with jobs where they experience social interaction with others and work in a cooperative and supportive environment whereas males are more prone to more demanding and challenging jobs. According to Eagly (1987), female orientations will include aspects such as a need to be with others and helping others while male values will be characterised by self-development and the need to master tasks.
Murray and Atkinson (1981) analysed eight research studies and concluded that females are more inclined to value aspects such as social interaction whereas males place more value on extrinsic factors such as pay and advancement. Mortimer, Finch and Maruyama (1988) try to explain this phenomenon by hypothesising that females are more affected by their individual family needs and requirements in comparison with males. This argument is supported by Quinn, Staines and McCollough (1974) who found that females placed more emphasis on aspects such as travel time from work to home than men. It is argued that it is possibly because of female family responsibilities at home. Rightly one could ask whether the same assumption is still applicable in society today where in many cases, men are viewed as the primary caregivers. Another variable to consider comes from Martin and Hanson (1985) who argue that the sources of job satisfaction would be determined by whether the individual is the sole breadwinner of the family. They found for example that non-breadwinning females identified ease of access as an aspect of importance to them in comparison to those being the breadwinners.
A British study highlighted the relationship between three measures of job satisfaction and a range of job and individual characteristics. The researchers selected a random sample of 10 000 individuals in 5 500 British households by using the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS), collected in 1991 (Clark & Oswald, 1996). Clear differences with reference to gender, education, age, working hours and organisational size were found. It was found that males, employees in their thirties, those with higher educational levels, those working longer hours and those in larger organisations were less satisfied with their jobs than their counterparts. These findings might be discussed in terms of the level of employee job expectation and contribution to the labour force, as well as the comparisons of gender, age and education. It was found that the type of job also influenced results. For example, workers in larger organisations, working longer hours, union members and those with no promotional prospects are more likely to be dissatisfied in their work.
In another study it was found that males are more satisfied with pay than female employees whilst females place a higher premium on relationships with co-workers than their male counterparts (Tang & Talpade, 1999). In attempting to explain the gender differences, Groot and Van den Brink (1999) propose reasons such as balancing the needs of children and working hours as possible explanations for the differences in opinions.
Sloane and Williams (2000) conducted a study in the UK with 6 110 participants with a variety of employment circumstances. They found that females had a higher mean job satisfaction in seven facets excluding being able to use own initiative. For both males and females the most significant determinant of job satisfaction was the characteristics of the type of job. For men, job security and promotion were highlighted as more important, while women placed more emphasis on the importance of acceptable interpersonal relationships and working hours. From a traditional viewpoint, it is not surprising that males find especially job security a source of job satisfaction, if the traditional stereotypical viewpoint is supported that males are the sole breadwinners.
In a study by Bowen, Cattell and Distiller (2008), a web-based questionnaire survey was used for 146 quantity surveyors in South Africa. Sixteen per cent of the sample was female respondents. Findings suggest that, regardless of gender, the majority of quantity surveyors indicated satisfaction with their salaries. Similar results were found when the need of recognition by the supervisor was investigated. Again, no differences between genders were found. However, they did find gender differences with reference to the ability to not be on the work premises during established working hours (i.e. highlighting the need for flexible working hours). Similarly, females also indicated aspects such as maternity and paternity leave above legal minimum expectations as more important than men. Where there is male dominance in firms, nearly 50% of female participants indicated that promotional opportunities to managerial level were obstructed by managers in the organisation. There are therefore clear gender differences in the perception of advancement opportunities.
It is clearly important to try and explain the gender differences in job satisfaction. Rosenbach, Dailey and Morgan (1979) attribute gender differences to females’ subordinate position in society. Once again, these findings could be questioned in today’s modern, gender equal society.
Gutek’s (1988) explanation of gender differences focuses on the socialisation and structural paradigms where the differences in job satisfaction, for example, are ascribed to aspects that are related to gender due to previous separation of the sexes in organisations. Mason (1995) agrees by indicating that so-called multi-faceted opportunity structures in organisations will provide the positive outcomes of individualised values where these values are learnt by mostly males. On the other hand, opportunity structures often associated with females create focus on common outcomes such as positive relationships and interactions.
Paradoxical to this, the question remains why some investigations found that female job satisfaction levels are not lower than those of males since they have experienced much more inferiority in the world of work in the past. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is that females will inevitably have lower job expectations than males since they compare themselves to females while males compare themselves to males (Chiu, 1998).
To conclude, there are clearly some contradicting findings in the literature since Johnson, McClure and Schneider (1999) investigated eleven different studies and concluded that there is no real empirical evidence to suggest any differences in the perception of job satisfaction between males and females.
Whether there are differences or not, there is still considerable occupational or career segregation between males and females, despite an increase in females – and even more married females – in the labour force (Sloane & Williams, 2000). This can possibly raise the question whether males and females desire and favour different aspects of a job. Sloane and Williams (2000) argue that males might favour jobs where overtime is more prominent – which will explain differences in pay between the sexes. Although females might be interested in opportunities for overtime, married females, especially those with children will find it more difficult to manage. Despite this argument, it is suggested that employees will attempt to maximise their advantages or rewards and that this will eventually result in equal outcomes (Sloane & Williams, 2000).
Souza-Poza and Souza-Poza (2000) state that the level of job satisfaction of individuals are largely due to their own self-awareness and therefore it could be argued that when researchers investigate the determinants of job satisfaction, the focus and emphasis should be on more subjective variables such as perceptions about job security and pay and not necessarily on objective variables such as income and gender. The questions could rightly be asked whether such subjective determinants do play a role in job satisfaction since it remains perceptions during that particular point during an investigation (Dockery 2003).
Notably, Mason (1997) explains this confusion by referring to the fact that job satisfaction is a multi-faceted phenomenon and that research findings will differ based on the focus of the study. The author therefore warns researchers to be careful in generalising findings in this regard. From a cultural perspective, Schulze (2005) conducted a phenomenological investigation into the job satisfaction of black female academics at a South African distance learning institution. Respondents were selected using purposeful and snowball sampling with 10 participants associated with distance education and humanities taking part in the study. By using an interview, participants were asked how they felt about aspects such as promotions, co-workers, community service, teaching and research.
Intrinsically participants were rewarded by teaching, the opportunity to continually develop and the opportunity to specialise in a particular field. The majority of participants indicated a preference for teaching rather than research. Results with regards to community service were conflicting. Some participants knew exactly what it meant whilst others indicated no involvement or participation. Some participants did, however, suggest that community involvement contributed to their level of job satisfaction. With regards to administration and own management, a proportion of participants were ‘overwhelmed’ and ‘did not feel in control’ of the amount of administrative duties and expectations experienced in a distance educational organisation (Schulze, 2005).
The participants were dissatisfied with their remuneration and suggested that it did not reflect their effort at work. There were participants who mentioned that they experience job security – perhaps more than their white female or male colleagues. The promotion system has been associated with various weaknesses due to a lack of openness and opportunities for promotion. In general it was found that none of the respondents were dissatisfied with their work. Teaching, having access to an office and flexibility in working hours were highlighted as determinants participants were most satisfied with (Schulze, 2005).

Differences at managerial level

When investigating gender differences in management, it is once again clear that different perceptions have been formed regarding the sources and experiences of job satisfaction. In the past, research indicated that many employers treated male and female supervisors and managers differently (Valentine, 2001). Studies done by Cann and Siegfried (1987) even found subordinates preferring male leaders to females (Valentine, 2001). Interestingly, Jeanquart-Barone and Sekaran (1994) also found that some female employees trust male supervisors more than female supervisors. With reference to subordinates, Cooper (1997) (as cited in Valentine, 2001) argues that it seems as if they also tend to suggest that female managers are the reason for unacceptable outcomes in the work environment. Consequently gender attitudes will then also have an impact on the assessment and preference for female managers and leadership (McGlashan, Wright & McCormick, 1995).
Also, the social impact within ambiguous situations will normally encourage stereotypical gender roles. It is therefore argued that at the managerial level in organisations, the type of job should rather be the criteria instead of the gender of the employee when policies are developed for managers in job areas such as motivation, job satisfaction, rewards and so forth. It is also stated that females in managerial positions should experience opportunities for achievement, advancement and responsibility in order for them to experience a challenging work environment. The result would be higher retention levels and a company benefiting from the skills and experience of these managerial females (Mason, 1995).
From a research perspective it will be interesting to note whether gender differences prevail between specifically managers. In a study by Johnson, McClure and Schneider (1999), no significant differences in job satisfaction was found on a 5% significance level. They did a study into the differences in job satisfaction between male and female transportation and logistics managers. They sent out surveys to 500 males and 500 females in the USA. The researchers received 155 male and 146 female responses back. They measured job satisfaction by using the Andrews and Withey Job Satisfaction Questionnaire which consists of a 7-point scale questionnaire. The questions which were included focused on the following: ‘How do you feel about your job ?; How do you feel about people you work with – your co-workers ?; How do you feel about the work you do on your job – the work itself ?; What is it like where you work – the physical surroundings, the hours, the amount of work you are asked to do ?; How do you feel about what you have available for doing your job – meaning equipment, information, good supervision?’ and so on. Levels of overall job satisfaction were determined by calculating the average of each respondent’s score on the questionnaire questions.
The mean job satisfaction score for males was 2.48 and for females 2.65 (p=0.8) which is not significant at the 5% level or less. In order to include qualitative aspects in the study, researchers developed some open ended questions where participants were invited to provide a personal account to the question whether they would embark on the same career if they had the opportunity again. The findings suggest that males were mostly satisfied with outstanding opportunities for promotion, an exciting work environment and work that is intellectually stimulating. Females, on the other hand, indicated intellectually stimulating work as the most important factor followed by outstanding opportunities for promotion and an exciting work environment (Johnson et al., 1999). It is clear that also from a qualitative perspective, little difference is found between the sources of job satisfaction.
A study that took place in South Africa was the investigation done by Bowen et al. (2008). The researchers were interested in gender differences in job satisfaction, but they only managed to obtain 16 per cent female responses – making the study unrepresentative of the whole population.
The research into female leadership can be divided into two camps. On the one hand there is the assumption that there are no or few differences between the leadership style of male and female managers, but, on the other hand there is the camp that supports the gender stereotypical viewpoint where it is argued that clear gender differences do prevail (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). In the latter, female leadership is viewed as collaborative with an emphasis on problem solving and empathy (Helgesen, 1990). According to Alvesson and Billing (1997), the former camp is normally academic, with a lot of emphasis on empirical measurement and clear variables. The latter is much more associated with practitioners that will rely on qualitative investigations to support their theories.
To conclude, it is clear that there is no simple answer to whether females manage differently from their male counterparts. Alvesson and Billing (1997) rightly points out that individuals seeking a simple answer will be frustrated by the different outcomes in the literature, but also by the complexity of the phenomena. This is illustrated by the fact that there are not only unanswered questions regarding females within the business world, but also in the social environment. When analysing the South African context, the common characteristics of a patriarchal environment or society is the subordination of females. The general belief is that men are in control and that females need to obey them (Alvesson & Billing, 1997). This is still especially true for the traditional black cultures in South Africa. However, traditional viewpoints of males assuming the role of main provider and females staying at home to raise the family, has changed dramatically in recent years (Broers, 2005). Modern families adopt a variety of different roles in order to balance social and family demands as well as work expectations. From a methodological perspective a limitation remains that the majority of the above-mentioned studies relied on quantitative eurocentirc measuring instruments that are not necessarily applicable to an African sample.

GENDER AND ROLE DEMANDS

Historically, organisations could impose rigid work demands on employees due to the majority of the workers being male while females stayed at home looking after the family (Bruce & Reed, 1994). Recently, however, the demographics of organisations have changed dramatically with an increase in minority groups and females in the workplace, changing the status quo forever. Organisations are now inclined to accommodate worker demands much more; especially with regards to the balance between work and family life (Hudson Institute, 1990).
The socialisation theory, however, postulates that males and females were brought up within environments where different expectations were associated with different gender roles. These expectations are then naturally brought into the workplace. As mentioned previously, females are groomed to focus on common values and social support whereas males are encouraged to produce traits such as being assertive (Eagly, 1987). Since the latter focuses more on values such as individual achievement and success, it can be assumed that this will contribute to the perception that male values are more inclined towards self-actualisation and self-development than females who are committed to a more social supportive viewpoint (Mason, 1997).
The structural theory, on the other hand, argues that any potential differences between male and female perceptions are due to other variables rather than gender (Gutek, 1988). It is suggested that the traditional sex-segregation of jobs in organisations will contribute to an environment where males will more naturally learn these agentic values and characteristics whereas the positions females find themselves in, are more inclined towards a social perspective in the work environment (Kanter, 1977).

Role conflict

Martin (1993) is of the opinion that family responsibilities and issues still contribute to females not being able to progress in their careers. It is still assumed in many cultures that females’ primary role is to look after family and children – especially if they are still young. Therefore, the dynamics between family and career might have an impact on female perceptions and attitudes towards their interests in careers.
Although it is commonly agreed that gender roles have changed in the past years, it is acknowledged that traditional expectations of roles in work and family is still prevalent (McElwain, Korablik & Rosin, 2005). Loscocco (1997) for example points out that men, but not women, view long working hours as an opportunity to invest in themselves and the organisation. This is supported by Fredriksen-Goldsen and Scharlach (2001) who stated that females, despite a more balanced distribution of family and work roles, still play a more active part in being primary caregivers than their male counterparts.
Where female managers and their husbands work similar hours, female managers were more involved with their children than their husbands. A possible explanation for lower involvement with children might be that husbands feel guilty that they do not spend enough time with their wives due to long working hours, and will try to create more time with them instead of with the children (Broers, 2005). Furthermore Pocock (2005) mentions that although there is a significant increase in females in the workplace, the traditional family roles are still kept. Therefore, it is understandable that female managers will still be the parent investing more time in the children.
Although the literature suggests that traditional roles are still prevalent and accepted, Super’s (1990) lifespan theory supports multiple roles by implying that it creates different emotional channels for the individual with regards to values, abilities, interest, etcetera. Marks (1977) agrees by suggesting that activity in one particular role could result in energy to be used in other roles. The impact and influence of multiple roles on females will essentially be the product of their own needs, experiences and expectations of society (Anderson & Mietzitis 1999). This was an important factor to consider and acknowledge in the current investigation since female participants may have experienced different social expectations in their societies across South Africa.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.3 RESEARCH AIMS
1.4 RESEARCH PARADIGM
1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN
1.6 RESEARCH METHOD
1.7 OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS
CHAPTER 2 A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW OF JOB SATISFACTION
2.1 DEFINING JOB SATISFACTION
2.2 THEORIES AND MODELS OF JOB SATISFACTION
2.3 DIMENSIONS OF JOB SATISFACTION
CHAPTER 3 CONTEXTUAL VARIABLES: GENDER, CULTURE AND MANAGERIAL LEVEL
3.1 GENDER DIFFERENCES ASSOCIATED WITH JOB SATISFACTION
3.2 GENDER AND ROLE DEMANDS
3.3 CULTURE AND THE ROLE IN JOB SATISFACTION
3.4 MANAGEMENT AND THE ROLE OF MIDDLE LEVEL MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN
4.2 SAMPLING AND SAMPLE STRUCTURE
4.3 DATA COLLECTION STRATEGIES
4.4 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
4.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
4.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE METHODOLOGY
4.7 ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
CHAPTER 5 THE MANIFESTATION OF DIMENSIONS OF JOB SATISFACTION AMONGST BLACK MIDDLE LEVEL MANAGERS
5.1 DIMENSIONS OF JOB SATISFACTION
5.2 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SOURCES OF JOB SATISFACTION
5.3 THE ROLE OF ACCULTURATION IN THE EXPERIENCE OF JOB SATISFACTION
5.4 SOCIO-POLITICAL AND HISTORICAL VARIABLES
5.5 EXPLORING THE FINDINGS IN TERMS OF THEORY AND CONTEXT
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT
6.2 RESEARCH AIMS
6.3 METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS: STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS
6.4 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE LITERATURE REVIEWS AND IPA STUDIES
6.5 FINAL CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
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