Immigrant communities and the immigration process

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CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH ON GREEK COMMUNITIES

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the studies carried out on the two main Greek communities outside of Greece, namely, America (USA) and Australia (also including New Zealand). Research tends to focus on these two countries, in particular. For this reason the researcher has chosen to focus on this research. Not much significant research has been published on Greek communities in other countries (see, for example, Clogg 1999). There is research on Greek communities in various countries which has surfaced in recent years, for instance, England (Gardner-Chloros et al (2005); Papapavlou & Pavlou (2001); Fotiou (2012), Turkey (Komondouros and McEntree-Atalianis (2007) and in the Czech Republic (Greeks in the Czech Republic; Sloboda (2003). It is, however, not significantly different from the research in the U.S.A. and Australia to warrant detailed discussion here.
Most of the sociolinguistic research conducted on the many different Greek immigrant communities in the USA and Australia tends to focus on the same or similar issues within these communities, for example, a brief synopsis of the history of the community, education, religion, media, inter-marriage, generation differences or similarities, family ties and patterns, and assimilation. The literature on these Greek communities also attests to the numerous and continued attempts by the communities to retain the Greek language.

The United States of America

The history of the Greek community in the USA

Bardis‟ (1976) comprehensive study of the Greeks in the USA can be viewed as a primary source of information on the history of the Greek community in the USA. The first arrivals were sailors; there is reference to John, the Greek sailor who, according to legend, sailed with Columbus (Bardis 1976:5). Some of the first arrivals were killed by the indigenous population of America but, as time progressed, Greeks started arriving in the New World for many of the same reasons that brought Greeks to Australia and South Africa (i.e. economic, political and social reasons). Bardis (1976:5,6) points out that the new arrivals experienced many problems, including language problems, i.e. the language barrier, caused by having to communicate in the host language (English).
Saloutos (1967:1) provides the same picture when dealing with the history of the Greek community in the USA, namely, that they were amongst the last Europeans to immigrate to the USA (i.e. the late immigrants who arrived in the 1950s, 1960s and those who still continue to arrive). Although some arrived earlier as adventurers and sailors during the voyages of discovery and the colonial period, the first major emigration was just before and immediately after World War I (1905– 1914), and the majority arrived after World War II.
In addition to the reasons for immigration given in Bardis (1976), Saloutos (1967:1) mentions various other reasons, for example, for educational purposes: towards the end of the Greek War of Independence (1946–1949), missionaries visited Greece and encouraged the youth to go to America for their education, the idea being that they would return to Greece to help rebuild the country (it is not specified whether these were religious missionaries or simply volunteers who were zealous for the cause). Many of the earlier immigrants also came from the Greek-speaking areas of the Ottoman Empire, in order to escape political and religious persecution by the Turks. As was the case with Greek immigration to South Africa, Saloutos (1967:2) shows that many Greeks went to the USA because of poor conditions in the agricultural sector in Greece, consequently, many came from rural areas.
Kourvetaris (1981:164) notes that the early Greek immigrants were mainly from the working class or from an agricultural background; they had limited skills and education, and there was always the hope that they would return to Greece:
[T]he majority of the initial Greek arrivals in a new country were working class people, mainly from southern Greece and the islands. Most were from an agricultural background, and had limited skills and education. The small number of professionals, who may have gone to the USA, played the role of community leaders. Families, as such, did not immigrate, because they did not expect to stay. Immigration was seen as a source of social and economic mobility for farmers and the lower classes.
Kourvetaris (1971:42) lists three main types of immigrants: the economic immigrant; the religious or political immigrant; and the student or scholar immigrant.
Many of the first arrivals (in the new countries) were young men without families, and teenagers without parents. Many of these arrivals came with the idea of providing for themselves and for their parents or families in Greece. Saloutos (1967:2) identifies the general characteristics of the new arrivals as: their adventurous spirit, their expectation of opportunities in the new country and their intention to return home once they had made enough money.
In comparison with immigration from other countries, Greek immigration to the USA has never really ceased, resulting in increased communities, and continued ethnicity or a “Greek cultural transfusion” (Kourvetaris, 1981:163). This notion can be seen in conjunction with Vlachos‟ (1964:131) concept of “transplanting” to explain the continuation of the Greek way of life in a new host society.
In contrast with the earlier arrivals, later immigrants from Greece were better educated and not only from villages or rural areas. Many were sponsored by friends and family of the earlier arrivals from Greece. The similarities between the two groups were that they both brought with them a life-style which was folk orientated, and which emphasised family and tradition (Kourvetaris, 1981:164). Whereas many immigrants from north west Europe settled mainly in smaller towns or rural areas, Greeks and others from south east Europe settled mainly in cities where there were greater opportunities for employment.
Kourvetaris (1981:166) indicates that it was mostly the immigrants from South East Europe who initially encountered the greatest discrimination, as there was a fear of being influenced or “contaminated” by people from a “lower social class”, and a discriminatory law was passed (1924–1965) to limit the number of South East Europeans from entering the USA, and favouring immigration from North West Europe. These types of measures made Greeks (and most of these labelled immigrants) more determined to succeed and move out of the so-called lower social status. Academics and students of Greek culture indicate that, despite differences which may exist between the early and late arrivals, and the different generations, family and religion contribute to maintaining the Greek culture and tradition (Kourvetaris 1981:166).
The Greek community could be viewed as a religious community (i.e. they have strong religious convictions and ties to the church). The priest plays an important role in the lives of the people, and the church is almost an extended family, especially in life events such as weddings, baptisms and holidays (Kourvetaris, 1981:167).
In approximately 1922 the AHEPA (American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association) was formed – the largest Greek organisation in the USA. This organisation helped to fight against discrimination and prejudice, and later helped Greeks to gain education, as well as to become involved in social and political activities. It also served as a link between the Greek and American communities; other ethnic institutions such as schools and professional societies were established, including ethnic mass media (radio and TV stations, newspapers and magazines in Canada and America) as well as the Greek Orthodox parochial school system (Kourvetaris 1981:168).
Scholars studying the Greek communities, also examine the pattern of settlement of these communities in the countries to which they emigrate. Similarities can be noted in patterns of settlement and arrival in the USA and in South Africa (cf. Chapter 1). Saloutos (1967:2) indicates that some of the first arrivals in the USA settled in mining states in the west. Upon arrival, they would stay with family, friends or Greeks who were from the same village in Greece, or the same island. This helped new arrivals with accommodation, initial employment and advice. Saloutos (1967:3) notes that the new immigrants were usually from a rural background, but the preference was to settle in a city – indicative of their optimism and determination.
Many new arrivals started off in street trades (for example, selling flowers), but later progressed to owning their own stores. Saloutos (1967:3) notes that many may have done shoe-shining – which did not require an extensive knowledge of English, others worked on the mines or railroad construction and some were fishermen. Farming was avoided as it required capital and farming practice in the USA was different from that in Greece. It was also something they had not really enjoyed in their old country, and which they were trying to leave behind.
According to Saloutos (1967:3), language was a problematic issue. Some Greeks did attend English classes, while others learnt it in a more informal manner. The language barrier played a role in confining or limiting immigrants to menial jobs. Saloutos (1967:4) sums up the position:
The Greeks, like members of other ethnic and religious minority groups, met opposition from various directions. Their presence was resented by many native Americans…Some recalled days when they could not walk down the streets without being assaulted by youngsters or subjected to the profanity of their elders…Not knowing English and unable to communicate, aggravated matters.

Education

A strong feature of Greek communities is their desire for an excellent education. This may be explained, inter alia, in light of the fact that they initially endured discrimination in many of the countries to which they emigrated; education is therefore seen as a means to improve oneself, and the way to a better social standing and way of life. This is evident, for example, when Xenides (1922:107) states: “Greeks seek wisdom. Wherever they go, they open and support schools. Parents are anxious to educate their children well…the public school is a melting pot where children of all races are receiving the same training. They all learn English…”
Initially, there were no Greek schools, only those under the Roman Catholic Church, (Bardis 1976:35f). The parents expressed their concern for the establishment of Greek schools. In the early period of settlement, the church played a role in Greek education (i.e. the priests taught Greek until the arrival of Greek teachers). As the community developed, the various schools in the Greek communities were established (i.e. day schools, afternoon schools and Sunday schools).
At the time of his study, Xenides (1922: 108) reports that there were no parochial schools among the Greeks in America, such as the Roman Catholics had. The only institution at the time was the Greek American Institute in New York. These children received schooling as in a public school but in addition, they were taught the Greek language, institutions and the Greek Orthodox doctrine. The aim was to “preserve the Greek language and religion, besides giving the children the essentials of American education” (Xenides, 1922:108).
Vlachos (1964:125) indicates that attending public schools is an important factor in the assimilation process; conversely, attending Greek schools in the host society limits assimilation, and perpetuates Greek ideals. Vlachos (1964:125) says of Greek education:
“It is seen as part of an integrated Greek-American personality possessing the „trinity‟ of language, ethnic identity, and Greek Orthodox religion.” Vlachos (1964:126) remarks that the Greek education of the children was a major concern for parents. Small numbers meant that they were not able to create full parochial schools; these schools could only be found in the bigger cities such as Chicago, where there were two day schools. The various types of schools operating within the immigrant communities (as discussed in detail by Fishman, 1966; § 2.2.1) which operate closely with the Church, are also mentioned by Vlachos (1964:127):
1. Day schools – parochial grade schools with both American and Greek teachers
2. Afternoon schools – operated in the afternoon, after American school
3. Catechetic or Sunday schools – function every Sunday, where priests could also act as teachers; Greek teachers or college graduates of Greek descent could assist in teaching.
In addition, there were two higher institutions, under the supervision of the church: St Basil Academy of Garrison (New York), for teachers of afternoon community schools, and the Theological School of Brookline (Boston), for the new priests who would serve in Greek churches in the USA. Vlachos (1964:127) notes that despite an effort by the Greek community and the schools to resist assimilation, the small number of pupils in Greek parochial schools can be seen as indicative of an increasing trend toward participation in the American schools system. Many Greek schools emphasise a combined Greek and American approach, not an exclusively Greek one.
Initially, the church offered tuition in Greek. Saloutos (1964:72) indicates the usual order of events in the communities: after the establishment of the church, a community school would be established and the parish priest would serve as the first teacher. The important aim of the Greek school was “perpetuating the Modern Greek language and…preventing the child from being raised in complete ignorance”.
The importance of education and the Greek school, especially from the parents‟ point of view, is highlighted in Saloutos‟ study (1967:8) when he states that the establishment of a Greek language school was of concern to the community: “To them this was a matter of necessity as well as of cultural and national pride.” Greek education is of importance for the parents as they want to communicate with their children in the mother tongue, and they want their children to be afforded the opportunity to study the language (see also § 3.3.4) the „community languages‟ rationale and the „background speaker‟ rationale). Learning to speak Greek was very important for immigrant families. In many instances, the schools were built after the church, and often the parish priest would be the first teacher; in certain areas laymen would act as instructors. These schools would also serve as afternoon schools. Day schools for the study of Greek were found only in the largest Greek communities.
After World War II, there was once again an appeal to the Greek immigrant for the preservation of the Greek language. At meetings, for example, they were encouraged to teach their children Greek, and to encourage the study of Modern Greek in public schools and colleges (Vlachos, 1967:31). Many of the Greek parishes maintained Greek schools. Despite an effort to teach the language, there were obstacles: younger generations did not appreciate the value of studying Greek; the priests and parents were not always successful in their attempts to motivate the learning of the language. The attempts to get children to learn the language were made more difficult as a result of assimilation; many of the younger generations felt that learning Greek would not be beneficial in their daily life. Whereas in the past, many Greeks stayed together in „colonies‟, the newer generations spread themselves in the bigger cities or suburbs. Transport to and from Greek schools posed a problem as did the quality of instruction and degree of achievement in relation to the value of these schools (Vlachos, 1967:32).
From early in the 20th Century, a number of schools that were connected with the Greek churches or communities were opened. As Xenides (1922:108) remarked: “Church and school go hand in hand among the Greeks in all lands. Education has been entrusted to the church”. At the time of his study, Xenides (1922:108) reported that there were approximately 150 Greek churches, but only 40 to 50 schools but they were on the increase. In these schools, the children were taught in the afternoons or evenings to learn “only the rudiments of the Greek language and Greek religious instruction similar to that in Greece…all other subjects are taught in the public schools in English”. Xenides (1922:108) reported that there were also private schools where children and adults could learn Greek. Some operated in the day, others at night.

Religion

In the USA, there has been a long history of debate with regard to language use in the Greek Orthodox Church. For many years the church tried to resist assimilation in order to preserve the Greek national identity. However, this proved to be an almost impossible task in a multilingual and multi-cultural country such as the USA. With time, immigrants realised that the church could not be both American and Greek, and over the years it had to become more „indigenous‟ or American, preserving an American identity more than a Greek one. With time, the church also felt that religious issues and the retention of members were more important than linguistic issues.
As early as 1922 a study of the Greek community in the USA was conducted by Xenides. He notes that an important factor for language maintenance was the publication of the Bible in Modern Greek by the American Bible Society and the New York Bible Society (Xenides, 1922:137).
On the other hand, it is interesting to note that as early as 1922 Xenides (1922:144) predicted that: “The Greek church in America may ultimately adopt the English language for its services as the coming generation will have English as their mother tongue and excepting the newcomers will not understand the Greek.” Xenides (1922:144) felt that that this may lead to other people (non-Greeks) joining the church, such as American women who had married Greek husbands.
Xenides (1922:144) notes that Greeks who had become Protestant Greeks, were more open to Americanisation and assimilation. His findings show that Greeks who attend American churches are already Americanised, especially the children and young people. Furthermore, he found that in the few Protestant congregations which do exist, Greek is used for the sermon, prayers and hymns, but English hymns are being introduced by the Protestant Armenians. Greek children attend American Sunday schools, unless there is a separate Greek school. Xenides (1922:145) therefore concluded that “English is coming in slowly but surely. Greek may continue to be used for the sake of the newcomers, but for the rising congregation English will be the language of the Greek Protestant churches. They will become Americans”.
Continuing, Xenides (1922:148) makes mention of Sunday schools and religious instruction, in general. He discusses the issue of Sunday schools and identifies the need for Greek Sunday school material. The importance of religious instruction in all Greek communities is emphasised, for everyone, not only for children. He felt this was important as the public schools did not offer religious instruction and many parents do not feel that they are able or qualified to teach their children about religion.
In his study of the American community, forty years later, Vlachos (1964:126) also examines the issue of language and religion, and as substantiating evidence, includes a letter sent to Greek parents by the Greek Archdiocese with regard to Greek schools; this indicates the strong desire to perpetuate Greek education, language and religion in the USA:
In addition, Vlachos (1964:130) points out that the Greek language is one of the most important and central features of the Greek Orthodox Church. Vlachos highlights the fact that the first generation is opposed to the use of English in the service. Ancient Greek was also used in the services and was not understood by all Greek-Americans. The language was a deterrent for many in the younger generations, which led them to leaving the church and becoming assimilated. Those Greeks who were in favour of retaining the Greek language and culture proposed that services should be bilingual (half in Greek and half in English). A further suggestion was to have the service in Greek, followed by a summary in English, or to alternate: to have the service in English one week and in Greek the following week.
A significant factor for the retention of language and culture is discussed by Vlachos (1964). He examines how the Greek community‟s language and culture continues to exist in a new host society. The church plays an important role in the retention of the culture in a new country (see also Steinberg 1978; § 6.5). The term or concept of „transplanting‟ is used to explain this phenomenon – continuing with customs and institutions to help to maintain the culture in the new country. Here, Vlachos (1964:131) speaks of the immigrants transplanting the church in an attempt to preserve the traditional way of life. There seems to be a set pattern: the first thing done by Greek immigrants in a new environment is to establish a church or place of worship (Vlachos 1964:131) – usually when there are 300 to 400 people in the new community.
Vlachos poses a leading question: Why is the church so central to Greek culture? The answer is to be found in the history of the people. Constantinople fell in 1453 and Greece was occupied by the Turks for many centuries, the church then became the centre for the preservation of the national conscience. Priests fulfilled the role of teachers and leaders of local communities. Thus, the fate of the Greek nation became closely linked to the church.
Because of the central role that religion and family play in the life of Greek-Americans, these domains remain distinctly Greek “and in many respects are more tenaciously conserved than in Greece proper” (Vlachos 1964:148). Assimilation has taken place in other areas such as vocations, organisations and education. The importance of the religious life of the community is also discussed by Saloutos (1967:12), in a later study. He states that religion added to the vitality of the community. Saloutos (1967:12) describes another interesting phenomenon in the USA, which can also be seen in many of the immigrant communities in South Africa, namely, that women are the ones who continue church attendance uninterrupted on weekdays and Sundays, as they had done in Greece. The men, however, are not always able to do so in a new country; in Greece, church attendance may not have interfered with their work; in the new environment, however, it was not always possible to attend church on a weekday, as it would have meant losing a day‟s wages (cf. Steinberg, 1978).
Saloutos (1967:13), when examining the retention or maintenance of culture and traditions in a new country, says that living in the same area could influence the maintenance of factors such as religion, traditions and education, as well as participation in the community functions:
When Greeks were clustered in colonies, the compactness of the colony contributed to the preservation of religious and ethnic traditions…Such compactness fostered attendance in the church, the Greek-language school, and various Greek community functions. However, gradual disintegration of the Greek community as the Greeks became Americanized had a reverse effect; it discouraged church attendance, school attendance, and participation in social functions and alarmed those who feared an eventual extinction of the Hellenic spirit in America.
Saloutos (1967:20,21) makes mention of many other factors which had a negative effect on the church, such as, World War I and the Great Depression (some churches in smaller communities had to close, for example). After 1931, however, the church experienced a period of recovery. The church also had the challenge of attracting and retaining the youth. This problem was compounded by the fact that in the USA there are many different denominations, whereas in Greece there is one official state church. Some Greeks became members of other churches; many of the second generation were not fluent in Greek and the priests were not fluent in English which made things more difficult for the church. Saloutos (1967:20, 21) mentions that the older members of the congregation did not want Greek to be replaced by English in the church services; an increase in mixed marriages also had an effect on church membership. Hence, assimilation was starting to affect the Greek Church and its membership.
Saloutos (1973) refers to churches, the press, societies, and new arrivals from Greece as re-enforcers of patriotic sentiment and language. Priests from Greece played an important role in the retention of Greek identity and language. Being foreign-born, these priests spoke only Greek, hence a positive factor for language maintenance. As in the case of education, religion can be an ambivalent factor. For instance, Xenides (1922) suggests that it would be better, from the church‟s point of view, for priests or the clergy to be trained in the country where the community finds itself. He explains that the church needs church leaders trained in American ways and ideas, in order to help revive the Greek Church and nation. However, from the point of view of language maintenance, when priests come from the mother country, they play an important role for retaining the language, whereas the American-born priests are less likely to retain the use of Greek in the church.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Number
Declaration
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Table of contents
Lists of figures and tables
Abbreviations
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The research problem and the motivation for the study
1.3 The aim of the study
1.4 Hypothesis for the study
1.5 Immigrant communities and the immigration process
1.6 The Greek language
1.7 The history of the Greek community in South Africa
1.8 A more recent study of the South African Greek community: Damanakis, 2003
1.9 The broader South African context
1.10 Preview of chapters
CHAPTER 2: LANGUAGE SHIFT AND MAINTENANCE: THEORETICAL ISSUES
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Foundational theories of Fishman
2.3 Theories pertaining to language maintenance and language shift
2.4 Language rights
2.5 Language as a national resource
2.6 Summary and conclusion
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH ON GREEK COMMUNITIES
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The United States of America
3.3 The Greeks in Australia and New Zealand
3.4 Comparative summary
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN
4.1 Introduction
4.2. Approaches to sociolinguistic research
4.3 Methodology used by main researchers in the field
4.4 Methodology used for this study
4.5 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5: RESULTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE
5.1 Introduction
5.2 School pupils, Saheti: Grades 8–12
5.3 Adult respondents
5.3 Conclusion
CHAPTER 6: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Factors
6.3 Religion
6.4 Socio-cultural involvement
6.5 The media
6.6 Migration and contact with the home country
6.7 Contact situations
6.8 Language loyalty
6.10 Conclusion
CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
7.1 Overview of thesis
7.2 A discussion of the significance of the findings of this research
7.3 The value of maintaining a minority language, such as Greek, in South Africa … 293
7.4 Recommendations for the maintenance of Greek in South Africa
7.5 Recommendations for further research
7.6 Concluding statement
Bibliography
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