LESOTHO POLITICAL ECONOMY: INDEPENDENCE TO THE PRESENT

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INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH METHODS

Several researchers have observed that artisanal mining has become a more pronounced feature of rural livelihoods across the southern African region, including in Lesotho (Bryceson & Jonsson, 2010; Maconachie & Binns, 2007; Maconachie & Hilson, 2011; Thabane, 2000a). Income earned through artisanal mining is becoming increasingly important for the reproduction of rural households (Fisher, Mwaipopo, Mutagwaba, Nyange & Yaron, 2009; Maconachie & Binns, 2007: 109; Maconachie, 2011: 1058). While the reasons for the growing importance of this type of mining vary
across the region and continent, studies suggest that as an income generator, it does not always replace agricultural production, but instead supports or supplements it (Maconachie & Binns, 2007: 107; Binns, 1982: 121; Ellis, 1998; 2000). The current study is concerned with understanding the impact of artisanal mining observed in rural economies across the southern African region on households and individuals in rural Lesotho.

Research methodology

I approached the study using ethnography, qualitative research, and textual and empirical data analysis. A qualitative research approach enabled me to document information about people and processes in their natural settings, which involved studying them in all their complexities (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). Field research This thesis is the result of several years of research, inclusive of nine months of fieldwork in the highlands of Lesotho in the villages of Kao and Liqhobong mining areas in the Butha-Buthe district in the north-eastern part of the country. The fieldwork was undertaken between May 2013 and January 2014 in two phases with the support of the Human Economy Programme at the University of Pretoria in South Africa. In Phase One, I stayed in Kao and Liqhobong villages and consulted the local chiefs and community councillors as well as artisanal diamond miners and their households. In Phase Two, I interviewed government officials from the Ministry of Mining, the Ministry of Trade and Industry, Cooperatives and Marketing (currently known as the Ministry of Small Business Development, Co-operatives and Marketing), and the Ministry of Local Government and Chieftainship. These four ministries are based at the headquarters of Maseru and Butha-Buthe, and there is also an official from the commercial diamond mine in Liqhobong. I carried out Phase Two in January 2014 prior to returning to the University of Pretoria in February. In both phases, I sought permission from the local authorities before I began my research. In Phase One, I obtained permission from the Area Chiefs of Kao and Liqhobong, and in Phase Two from the heads of department or section, depending on the specific Ministries.

Documentary sources

In order to strengthen my argument and data, I consulted conference papers, articles and commentaries published in journals, relevant textbooks, newspapers, archaeological records, internet sources, published interviews, field surveys and archival resources as well as digitised documents. The government reports consulted were from the following ministries: Mining, Trade and Industry, Cooperatives and Marketing, Local Government and Chieftainship, and Law and
Justice.

Ethical considerations

This research was developed in compliance with the ethical guidelines of the Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Humanities at the University of Pretoria. On my arrival in the villages (Kao and Liqhobong), I sought permission from the local authorities and presented an introduction letter from the University of Pretoria. In the case of Kao, Nthabiseng accompanied me to the residence of the chief (moreneng) literally ‘at the chief’s place’ (Wallman, 1968: 170, Murray, 1981: 3) and in Liqhobong Thabang accompanied me to moreneng. Area chiefs in both villages (Kao and Liqhobong) allowed me to carry out fieldwork. For the purpose of conducting interviews, I also obtained permission from informants themselves, especially the target group of artisanal diamond miners and the government officials. Moreover, I informed the local leaders and informants about the objectives of the research and its duration. I discussed with the informants the purposes of the
interviews and told them that the information was needed for research purposes only (Welman et al, 2005: 181; Matsie, 2009: 30; American Anthropological Association, 1986).

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Abstract
Acknowledgements
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH METHODS
1.1 Background and problem statement
1.2 Research methodology
1.3 Ethical considerations
1.4 Thesis outline
CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Literature review
2.3 Theoretical framework
2.4 Summary
CHAPTER 3: LESOTHO POLITICAL ECONOMY: INDEPENDENCE TO THE PRESENT
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Macro-economic considerations
3.3 Independence, transition and authoritarianism: BNP rule, 1966-1986
3.4 Neoliberalism and ‘democracy’ after independence (1986-2012)
3.5 Summary
CHAPTER 4: LIVELIHOOD DIVERSIFICATION IN KAO AND LIQHOBONG HOUSEHOLDS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Centres of contemporary mining
4.3 Sources of income
4.4 Summary
CHAPTER 5: KAO AND LIQHOBONG: CENTRES OF CONTEMPORARY ARTISANAL DIAMOND MINING
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Role of artisanal diamond mining in local economies of Kao and Liqhobong
5.3 Role of commercial diamond mining in local economies
5.4 Informal and unlicensed artisanal diamond mining in contemporary Lesotho
5.6 Linguistic terms used in unlicensed artisanal diamond mining
5.7 Trade in diamonds: How artisanal miners sell diamonds and what determines prices
5.8 Borders and legality: Diamond dealing as a global trade
5.9 Uses of mining income
5.10 Summary
CHAPTER 6: COMMERCIAL DIAMOND MINING – DISCOVERY, REGULATION AND DEVELOPMENT
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Early diamond mining in South Africa
6.3 Emergence of commercial diamond mining in South Africa
6.4 Discovery of diamonds in Lesotho
6.5 Diamond mining in colonial Lesotho
6.6 Diamond mining in post-independence Lesotho
6.7 Lesotho’s regulatory framework for diamond mining
6.8 Kimberley Process
6.9 Summary
CHAPTER 7: COMMERCIAL VERSUS ARTISANAL MINING IN LESOTHO –CONFLICT, VIOLENCE AND RESISTANCE
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Basutoland Diamonds Corporation in Kao: The Foxes and resistance
7.3 Liqhobong Diamond Mine Cooperative: Formation and closure
7.4 Responses by artisanal diamond miners to commercialisation and incorporation in Liqhobong and Kao
7.5 Legal battle
7.6 Summary
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1 Artisanal Diamond Mining, Gender and the Human Economy
8.2 Historical and contemporary context of diamond mining in Lesotho
8.3 A Distinctive Moral Economy among Artisanal Miners?
8.4 Political Environment and Economic Reform
8.5 Land and Environmental Change
8.6 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
8.7 Issues of Further Research and Recommendation