Multiple-reading, multiple meanings and productive conflict in literary criticism

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CHAPTER 3 IDEOLOGY IN AFRICAN LITERARY CRITICISM

Introduction

The discussion in this chapter revolves around the concept of ‘ideology‟ in relation to literature and literary criticism. This discussion constitutes an attempt to determine and locate the criticism of African-language literature in different ideological camps. In other words, this is an attempt to determine the extent to which ideology impacts on the criticism of African-language literature. The discussion in this chapter will also highlight the acknowledgement of the role of ideology in influencing African literary critical practice in general. This will further help to illustrate the extent to which ideology pervades all facets of human literary experience. Literary production as well as literary criticism cannot escape the influence of the ideology of the period during which the literary production and literary criticism take place.
In this chapter an assertion is made that ideology is responsible for determining those literary theories which should be used more than others. In turn a conclusion is drawn that giving prominence to some selected literary theories and marginalising others does not help the cause of African-language literary criticism. Marginalisation of other literary theories stifles the development of African-language literary criticism. Of prominent importance in this chapter is the argument both for the exploration and accommodation of literary views advocated by literary critics from different literary schools of thought and also the creation of more space for marginalised literary theories in the field of African-language literary criticism.

Ideology defined

The term ‘ideology‟, in its broad sense, has to do with ideas and beliefs that govern human existence and also influence people‟s decisions, attitudes and behaviour. Williams (1977:55) defines ideology as ‘a system of beliefs characteristic of a particular class or group.‟ Both arguments advanced by de Tracy and Williams in their endeavour to define the concept ideology tend to create a problem. The concern with their positions is that they tend to confine the term to an abstract level at the expense of man‟s social relationships. Once this happens, the material social processes that characterise human existence are relegated to the background. In other words, a concentration on the abstract level causes ignorance or negligence of other aspects of human existence. Ideas have to be nothing but a reflection of what occurs or has already occurred in the material social process.
A much broader view takes „ideology‟ as referring to those values, thoughts, ideas or practices that are projected as universal and common sense notions. They are often naturalised and used to legitimise prevailing human conditions. Ideology is seen as the conception of the world that is implicit in art and in all manifestations of individual and collective life. These manifestations can be discerned in all the practical activities of social life and background. They are taken for granted by people. Thus one can conclude that ideology is revealed in the manner in which people perceive the world. Their perceptions, aspirations, dislikes, preferences, etc., will always combine to be part of their ideological orientation. However, Mannheim (1936:49-50) contends that ideology is concerned with the opinions, statements, propositions, assumptions and systems of ideas as well as the characteristics and composition of the total structure of the mind of a particular group or class of people at a particular epoch.
The argument is also supported by Selepe (1993:73) who views ideology as ‘a system of ideas or beliefs which characterise the existence of a particular society within a particular historical epoch.‟ This view of ideology is further echoed by Mphahlele (1970:10) who argues that ideology is ‘a body of doctrine or a set of principles of a social movement, institution, class or large group.‟ In other words, aspirations, assumptions, preferences, and opinions of people are consolidated into a set of ideological principles that govern the lives of people belonging to particular groups. Through these ideological principles, people will identify with the group whose goals they sympathise with and share. These principles enable a group of people to feel a sense of belonging and commitment under a particular banner. Ideology also lends focus to the aspirations of a group as it represents a system of beliefs held by the group. In line with this, Straaten (1987:5) maintains that ideology is a system of beliefs which confers a shared identity on members of a society by locating them as characters in a story or actors in a drama. The argument about ideology advanced by Ngara puts it in no uncertain terms and also helps to explain some of the definitions already cited above. Ngara (1990:11) maintains that ideology „influences people‟s beliefs and conception of reality. It is the way in which people comprehend and interpret reality.‟ Thus one can conclude that ideology influences what works of art should entail and the manner in which works of art can be assessed. In other words, a work of art cannot be produced or created in a vacuum. A work of art and the manner in which its assessment should be carried out are anchored on a certain ideological premise.
The above references to ideology enable one to trace one central thread that runs through all the definitions – that is, ideology as a representation of beliefs, ideas, preferences, aspirations, fears, opinions, expectations, and interests of people in a particular period. Every sphere of human life is governed or shaped, if not influenced, by beliefs, aspirations, expectations, ideas, and interests which serve as a point of reference for the manner in which people have to conduct themselves politically, socially, economically and religiously. In other words, anything that happens either in economic, political, literary or religious sphere will have to conform to the rules, conditions, standards, interests and expectations as set out in the prevailing ideological environment. It follows that all spheres of human existence are governed or conditioned by a particular mode of ideology. This always happens in, for example, history, philosophy, economics, politics, literature, etc.
The above different disciplines will bear features of the ideology of the time. This kind of scenario is the best way of spreading the sphere of influence of a particular ideology. This extension of an ideological influence in a given time and place is necessary as it helps to condition or shape people‟s perception of things around them. Once beliefs, thoughts or expectations pronounced in a particular mode of ideology take firm hold on people‟s consciousness, people begin to act and think in a generally expected manner. People will begin to behave and think in conformity with the pronouncements of the prevailing ideology. Put differently, as a result of the influence of ideology of the time, people tend to do, think and see things in terms of the prevailing set of ideological pronouncements. Ngara (1990:11) endorses the above argument by aptly commenting that ‘our conception of religion, politics, morality, art and science is deeply influenced by our ideology … what we see and believe largely depends on our ideology, being the medium through which we comprehend and interpret reality.‟ The preceding statement confirms that the way people think, do or see things is largely shaped or dependent on a particular ideology.
Althusser also holds the same view that ideology serves as the anchor on which every aspect of human life is hinged. Althusser (1972:32) sees ideology as ‘a system of ideas which dominate the mind of a man or a social group.‟ In view of Althusser‟s definition of the term, one can posit that human beings will always ensure that those ideas and/ or beliefs that dominate their mind are reflected in all spheres of their lives, be they political, economic, literary, cultural, historical and religious. As a result of the influence of the prevailing ideology people will act, think and see things in accordance with current generally held beliefs. Put simply, actions or behaviour and/or perception of reality will always be determined or conditioned by the prevailing ideological beliefs.

The role and place of ideology in literary criticism

The statement by Mphahlele (1970:9) that ‘ … modern literature is heavily influenced by ideology‟ creates an impression that any literary work will bear some ideological elements of the time. It, therefore, stands to reason that literary theories applied in the assessment of modern literary works will also display some ideological leanings. Both works of art and literary theories often manifest different ideological standpoints. The overriding impression created by Mphahlele‟s assumption is that ideology has a fundamental and pervasive influence on all aspects of society, literature included. In support of Mphahlele‟s view, Gugelberger (1986:84) argues that „ideology is not something we can escape so easily. It is inherent and internal to all our thoughts and actions. It reveals itself in the form of work and deed.‟ The statement of Gugelberger is a continuation of the argument that ideology manifests itself in all aspects of human existence. No aspect of human life can escape the influence or impact of ideology. Mphahlele‟s view on the pervasive nature of ideology is also supported by Stern (1992:13) who acknowledges the role of ideology in literary studies by contending that the interpretation of literature is also ideological. The above argument leads one to understand that literary criticism is not immune from the influence of a particular ideology. Consequently, literary critics evaluate a work of art with a particular ideological slant. The following statement by Amuta (1989:14) attests to this argument:
The class position of a critic, his self-perception in and mode of insertion into the prevailing class formations of his society influence and even determine the ideological colouring of his critical products.
In the above extract, Amuta is expressing the view that a close study of any literary work will, in most cases, reveal the ideological biases of that particular work of art or critic. Amuta‟s argument also seems to suggest that the literary critic, the writer and the text are greatly influenced by certain ideological tendencies. The impression thus created by this assumption is that every literary critic, writer or a work of art will always reveal some ideological bias. Critical canons and theoretical positions are determined by ideological pronouncements of the time. Following on this notion, one can argue that all literary traditions are informed by ideological tendencies that are prevalent in a particular era.
The political scenario in most African countries made it very easy for all spheres of human life to be permeated by ideological influences. Engaged in liberation struggles, the African people felt that their struggle was not only waged for political and economic emancipation, but also for their deliverance from Eurocentric cultural imperialism. In order to achieve the objectives of the struggle, African people had to mobilise even arts and literature. Cultural and literary activities were resorted to for the sake of the advancement of the struggle. In this way, literary production and literary criticism constituted other sites of struggle. While writers used their works of art to ward off cultural imperialism, literary critics also used their writing to expose and oppose evidence contained in some of works of art that promoted cultural imperialism. Ideology pervades every sphere of life, including literature and arts. Thus ideology surely plays a significant role in the conception of literary movements or literary approaches. What happens politically and economically in the broader society will also have a bearing on other spheres of life, such as cultural and literary domains.
Blunt also shares the same view, raised above, that ideology influences every sphere of human life. The following extract attests to his assertion that ideology even pervades literature and other arts:
Works of art are produced by artists, artists are men, men live in society and are, in a large measure, formed by the society in which they live (Blunt, 1937:105)
One can argue, following Blunt, that every artist is influenced by the situation in which he/she finds himself/herself. This further suggests that even what is produced or created by an artist cannot escape the influence of the situation in which it was produced or created. A work of art, as the product of an artist, will be greatly influenced or shaped by the conditions under which it was produced or created. What happens to the product of a literary artist also happens to the work produced or created by a literary critic. The conditions or circumstances that influence or shape works of art will also have a bearing on literary criticism produced under the same conditions. To further show the extent to which people are shaped by the conditions under which they find themselves, Blunt (1937:105) maintains that ‘… artists have always put into their works, either explicitly or implicitly, something of their attitude towards life.‟ Attitude is one of the many elements that constitute one‟s ideology or world-view. Thus literary artists often reveal their ideological beliefs in their works. In other words, when writers write, they always, consciously or unconsciously, make some statement about their situation that exposes their ideological leanings. A work art often reflects a writer‟s outlook or attitude towards life. This outlook or attitude may be cultural, political or religious in nature.
Blunt, although referring to what happened to the artists during the medieval period, touches on a point demonstrating that the prevailing ideology of the time was traceable in arts. To this effect, Blunt (1937:109) states that:
… he (painter/artist) was told not only what subject to paint but also what figures were to be included, how they were to be placed, what kind of dress they were to wear and what attributes they were to carry.
The above extract illustrates the point that if one is not dictated to by the prevailing situation, one is then dictated to by the exponents of a particular dominant ideology on how to approach a work of art. For example, during the medieval period, art had to conform with the ideology of the church. The content of a work of art had to give voice to the prevailing ideology of the church. Blunt‟s claim further helps to reveal that any artist who cuts himself/herself off from the ideology of his/her time is automatically excluded from the possibility of taking part in the most important movement of his/her time. Such a person is, therefore, forced to some sort of escape or alternative solution to find some consolation in his/her art. Garvin (1982:11) indicates the inevitability of ideological influence on literary production and literary criticism by positing that ‘a work of art is produced as the artefact of a particular era and ideology.‟ This statement proves that critics attempt to understand a work of art while at the same time remaining aware that they are subject to ideological claims and pressure of their time.

Ideology as a premise of literary criticism

According to Amuta (1989:56), ideology is ‘implicit in the very nature of literature … and it determines circumstances and socio-historical conditions which ultimately pervade literature.‟ This suggests that any condition that characterises human existence is shaped or determined by the prevailing ideology of the time. This further leads to the argument that world-view or the manner in which people perceive the world around them is mainly dependent on their current ideological beliefs. It is possible, then, to assume that a particular ideology produces a particular kind of world-view. The latter, in turn, influences every aspect of human existence exposed to that particular world-view. World-view will shape or inform any kind of literary criticism that forms part of its sphere of influence. The connection between ideology and world-view is eloquently expressed in Amuta‟s (1989:14) definition of ideology as ‘a relatively formed and articulated system of meanings, values, and beliefs of a kind that can be abstracted as a “world-view” or a class outlook.‟ Amuta‟s definition endorses the argument that ideology is the main determinant of people‟s way of perceiving things in their environment. In other words people‟s behaviour, thinking patterns, political and religious beliefs are informed or shaped by the prevailing ideology. The way people see the world around them is determined by the ideology they have internalised because it is that prevailing ideology that encapsulates their conceptions of the world around them.

Categories of ideology in African literary criticism

Ideology is a very broad concept that may be viewed and defined in different ways. However, in this study, ideology will be classified and examined in two categories only, namely, the dominant ideology and the subversive ideology. This research focuses on the argument that a work of art produced is the result of these two sets of ideological forces, namely, the dominant and subversive ideological forces.

The dominant ideology in African literary criticism

According to Ngara (1990:11), dominant ideology refers to the beliefs, assumptions and set of values that inform the thought and actions of a people in a particular era. Such an ideology is evident in the beliefs, assumptions and values of the ruling class which is often further reflected in education, economy, politics, arts and the culture of the country. Artists and literary critics undertake their various tasks under the heavy influence of the prevailing and dominant ideology. They produce/ create and also evaluate works of art on the basis of the dictates of the prevailing dominant ideology. Artists and literary critics are expected to undertake their literary preoccupations in terms of the rules, expectations and values of the proponents of the dominant ideology. In other words, a work of art and critical literature will reveal a confirmation of the beliefs, assumptions and values of the dominant ideology. Put another way, a writer or a literary critic will perform his/her literary task from the standpoint of the dominant ideology.
A dominant ideology is seen as representing those conventions, attitudes, thoughts, opinions and assumptions which are taken as common sense and also contribute to sustaining existing power relations. It constitutes the ruling class‟s views, beliefs, interests, and thoughts that take prominence in the different spheres of human life in a society. It is those interests, thoughts, attitudes or opinions of the dominant group that shape human life of the time. The ruling class will ensure that their status quo is not interfered with by using direct and indirect mechanisms to propagate their thoughts, perceptions or opinions that justify the prevailing situation. All social structures within society will be arranged in accordance with the ideological conventions and preferences of the dominant group. The dominant ideology is encapsulated in conventions, perceptions, opinions, attitudes and assumptions that are implicit and often taken for granted. These are not matters that people are consciously aware of. They are rarely explicitly formulated, examined or questioned. To disseminate the pronouncements of the dominant ideology, its advocates merge them with what is generally termed ‘common-sense background‟ and other forms of social action. The proponents of the dominant ideology structure everything in society in such a way that their ideological preferences affect the meanings of linguistic expressions, conventional practices of speaking, as well as thinking and all other situations or spheres of human life.
The fact that ideology can be used as a weapon of defence and can propagate the set of values, interests, opinions, perceptions or view of the dominant group is also confirmed by Stern (1992:17) who maintains that ideology is ‘used as a means toward the attaining, stabilizing and maintenance of political power in the world. The Westerners also wanted to extend the power to the literary domain.‟ Ideology pervades all spheres of human life, and the Westerners realised that their political power will not be complete if they did not extend their political influence, even to the literary domain. They ensured that their ideological standpoint affected and changed every aspect of human life under their sphere of influence. Stern (1992:17) further confirms the argument about the efforts of the dominant group to entrench its ideological standpoint. He contends that the conventions of the dominant ideology are ‘imposed as a system of intellectual bondage on a literary work or on a man‟s imagination …‟
The ruling class uses ideology to sustain its position and legitimise a particular human situation in society. In other words, ideology can be used to coerce people to consent to the prevailing social order as set up by the advocates of the dominant ideology. In this case, ideology becomes a weapon of defence of the threatened power or position of the dominant group. It is used to protect and advance the interests of the proponents of the dominant ideology. This argument is also corroborated by Cronin (1987:12) who holds that ideology must be seen as ‘a set of ideas with practical influence, shaped by specific social interest.‟ Cronin‟s statement further illustrates the point that the dominant ideology protects the interest of the dominant group. His argument further shows that ideology is used to mask the interests of the ruling class. These interests are intended to influence people into believing something is a reality. The proponents of the dominant ideology will use their ideas and values to influence and mould society to fit their ideological preferences and pronouncements.
The comment, by Gugelberger, on the role of the dominant ideology, seems to support the argument that ideology permeates and influences every aspect of society. Gugelberger (1986:83) remarks that the dominant ideology ‘comprises the dominant ideas, philosophical, artistic, moral, legal and religious …‟ His statement further serves to endorse the fact that the dominant ideology represents the prevailing attitudes, perceptions, opinions, thoughts and values of the dominant group which are taken for granted or taken to be natural. People feel obliged to believe that they have to live in accordance with the dominant ideological preferences and pronouncements which are manifest in the different social formations. In other words, politics, economy, history, culture and arts in any society will tend to reveal traces of the influences of the dominant ideology.
In terms of culture, literature and arts, these domains cannot escape the influence of the dominant ideology. In Africa the ideology that dominated the lives of African people was the colonial ideology. Thoughts and values of the colonial masters were propagated at the expense of African thought and values. Initially, the colonial ideology undermined African thought and values which were expressed in African oral traditions, and later on in modern African-language literature. The following extract illustrates the fact that the dominant colonial ideology propagated values that disregarded anything that was African:
…, colonial forces …, not only imposed a new cultural self on the African, but also undermined his own indigenous culture (Egudu, 1978:6).
Following on Egudu‟s statement, it is possible to trace how African culture was systematically undermined. An analysis of the above quotation reveals that every effort was made to relegate African thought and values to the background. In this way, the African people were encouraged to revere Western thought and values at the expense of African thought and values. African literary critics also argue that criticism of African literature generally fails because this criticism is not premised on African literary paradigms. They further contend that the failure of the criticism of African literature is brought about by disregard for African culture.
Early missionaries and anthropologists labelled Africa as a Dark Continent inhabited by primitive and savage people. As a result of this attitude, folktales, praise poems, legends, myths, riddles, dramatic performances and many other literary forms were ignored. This, however, should not be taken to mean that early missionaries and anthropologists did not contribute meaningfully to the development of African languages and literature. African languages and literature are highly indebted to the efforts and studies of the early missionaries and anthropologists. What is referred to in this thesis is the ideology that was propagated by some of the missionaries, anthropologists and colonial rulers. The dominant ideology furthered its aims by discouraging African people from engaging in their traditional activities which were regarded as being barbaric and evil. The following extract attests to this argument:
She stopped because her husband forbade her to do so.
‘We are not heathens,‟ he said. ‘Stories like those are not for the people of the Church.‟
And Hanna had stopped telling her children folk-stories. She was loyal to her husband and her new faith (Achebe, 1960:57- 58).
Here we see an African husband discouraging his wife from teaching their children African folk-stories. Both have converted to the new religion (Christianity). In order to prove that they have truly become Christians, African people had to forsake their own African practices. To further demonstrate their obedience and commitment to their newly acquired religion, African people had to try as much as possible to dissociate themselves from anything that had to do with African cultural practices. While African culture was undergoing a massive process of marginalisation, traditional African literature did not escape unscathed. The above quotation by Chinua Achebe, from his novel No Longer at Ease, demonstrates the efforts which were made to undermine African oral literature. It must be borne in mind that literature and its criticism are inseparable. They are symbiotically related. If people‟s natural arts and culture are removed and replaced by foreign ones, the mode of assessing them will also suffer in the process. The rejection of African culture also impacted negatively on African literary forms and their criticism. In other words, disregard of oral African literature also led to the disregard of any serious study of its criticism. While research of folklore in the United States started around 1800, serious research of African folklore and its criticism commenced around the 1960s.
The disregard of African culture and arts constituted another endeavour to propagate only those practices that would not negate the pronouncement of the dominant ideology (colonial Christian ideology). African practices of the time were viewed as a contravention of the principles of the Christian religion and the political system of the colonial rulers. In support of the promotion of the dominant ideology, literary criticism had also to conform to the paradigms of the colonial dominant ideology. Assessment of literary forms was also heavily influenced and it had to be carried out in terms of the literary approaches that were not in opposition to the dominant ideology. This practice spilled over even to the period of modern African creative writing. Assessment of modern African literary texts began to experience a shift in terms of literary approaches that were applied in their evaluation. More emphasis was laid on those literary approaches that did not undermine the conventions of the dominant ideology.
Most research into African literature and its criticism shows a slant towards literary approaches that are at ease with the dominant ideology. There was very little progress in the direction of those literary approaches that were seen as being hostile to the pronouncements of the dominant ideology. Such literary approaches were marginalised and African scholars who wanted to use them in their research were also discouraged. The issue that concerns the marginalisation of some literary theories and the preference of some theories over others is also discussed in Chapter 2.
Censorship was also another form of repression that was used to undermine African culture and arts. Authorities used censorship to clear the way for the propagation of the dominant ideology, even in creative writing.
It should be noted that, insofar as the dominant ideology is concerned, everything humanly possible was done to direct research in African literature and its criticism to the literary approaches that did not rock the establishment. For example, in the South African situation, most research in African-language literature and its criticism has been done in terms of literary theories such as Structuralism and Russian Formalism. Very little has been done in terms of the Marxist and feminist literary theories. Marxist literary theories have been avoided because of their perceived revolutionary nature, and feminist literary approaches were ignored because they tend to question and challenge the status quo of the traditional phallocentric society.
To close the argument on the dominant ideology, an observation can be made that oral African criticism was ignored. Paying attention to it would not have helped further the cause of the dominant ideology. Meanwhile some contemporary literary theories were marginalised in the assessment of modern African-language literature for almost the same reason. Marginalisation did not help much in promoting the assessment of African- language literature.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration
Acknowledgement
Dedication
Abstract
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.2 The statement of the problem
1.3 Aim and objectives of the research
1.4 Significance of the research
1.5 Rationale
1.6 Definition and explanations of terms and concepts
1.7 Research method
1.8 Data collection
1.9 The storyline of A si ene
1.10 Scope of study and outline of chapters
CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT AND DISCUSSION OF CATEGORIES OF LITERARY APPROACHES APPLIED IN AFRICAN-LANGUAGE LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Multiple-reading, multiple meanings and productive conflict in literary criticism
2.3 What is literary criticism?
2.4 World-view as a premise of literary criticism
2.5 Some reflections on the categories of literary approaches in the evaluation of African-language literature
2.6 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 IDEOLOGY IN AFRICAN LITERARY CRITICISM
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Ideology defined
3.3 The role and place of ideology in literary criticism
3.4 Ideology as a premise of literary criticism
3.5 Categories of ideology in African literary criticism
3.6 Eurocentricism and Afrocentricism: Ideological polarisationin African literary criticism
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4 AN INTRINSIC-BASED MULTIPLE-READING OF AN AFRICAN-LANGUAGE LITERARY TEXT
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Russian formalism as an intrinsic literary approach
4.3 Structuralism as an intrinsic literary approach
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5 AN EXTRINSIC BASED MULTIPLE-READING OF AN AFRICAN-LANGUAGE LITERARY TEXT
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Marxist reading of A si ene
5.3 A psychoanalytical reading of Asi ene
5.4 Feminist reading of A si ene
5.5 Conclusion
CHAPTER 6 GENERAL CONCLUSION
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Multiple-reading and literary text‟s multiple meanings
6.3 Intrinsic literary approaches and multiple meanings in A si ene
6.4 Extrinsic literary approaches and multiple meanings in A si ene
6.5 Conclusion
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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