Music education in South Africa in the 1980s

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Chapter 3 The 1970s and the need for change

In his Presidential Message of 1970, Arthur Wegelin (1970: 12) makes reference to changes taking place in music teaching. He touches on various aspects of the Society, including questions concerning membership, aims and objectives. It is worth quoting in full as the SASMT does not often speak about the relationship between instrumental teachers and school music teachers.
Daar is groot maatskaplike verskuiwings aan die gang. Die private musiekonderwys gaan ‘n kleiner omvang kry maar ‘n sterker posisie inneem en ‘n veel groter aantal van ons lede sal ‘n veiliger en beskermder bestaan gaan vind in poste aan skole en kolleges.
Die klavieronderwys sal in die toekoms meer hand-aan-hand saamgaan met die onderwys in stryk- en blaasinstrumente. Meer gekwalifiseerde onderwysers (esse) sal in hierdie rigting hulle verskyning maak. Vir die klavierspelers sal dit ‘n groter geleentheid bied om kamermusiek (…) uit te voer.
‘n Nuwe ontwikkeling is ook die skoolmusiek in klasverband wat die groot massa’s jong kinders gaan probeer opvoed in beter musiekwaardes. Hierdie onderwysers (esse) benodig groot getalle van in hierdie rigting opgeleide musiekonderwysers (esse) wat die geledere van ons vereniging seker sal kom versterk. Onder die skoolkinders wat op hierdie manier met musiek in aanraking kom, sal die begaafdes weer die leerlinge van ons klavieronderwysers (esse) word en op dié wyse hulle werkgeleentheid vergroot12 (Wegelin 1970: 12).
A year later at the 1971 Golden Jubilee Conference Arthur Wegelin continues in the same vein, drawing attention to the changes that have taken place over the previous fifty years of the SASMT. Although most of these points have already been made, they paint a useful picture of the 1970s and raise some of the issues that would face the Society in the years to come.
a) Music teaching has changed from mainly private piano teaching to a wide range of music teaching at universities, colleges and schools – including practical, theoretical and musicological studies
b) There are music departments at training colleges where teachers are trained for school music. (He notes that school music remains a huge challenge and has a minor status when compared to piano teaching)
c) Most music professionals are enjoying salary, pension schemes, medical aid and insurance
d) There are performing arts councils in all four provinces
e) There is access to recorded, broadcast and live music
f) The Government has taken over the development of music in the public sector
g) Universities and training colleges are the leading bodies in music teaching
h) Private piano teaching at home will dwindle
i) Schools have their own music courses and inspectors/examiners right up to matric level
j) Few overseas music teachers wish to settle in South Africa
k) The use of leisure time has changed (Wegelin 1971: 18, 32).
Wegelin makes the important point that because much of the work of the SASMT has moved to the universities and colleges, the SASMT needs to bring these personnel under its wing (Wegelin 1971: 32).
He supports the establishment of a National Diploma, but also cautions:
The Society should keep the ambition of the old days to lead, to set the pace. But we should be careful to know our limitations and not presume to have powers which have passed to other powers (Wegelin 1971: 17).
In the Presidential Address of 1970, J.D. Malan gives an example of where the influence of the Society has made a positive contribution to music education in South Africa.
Toe die lot van die individuele musiekonderrig in die skole van Kaapland in die weegskaal was, het die besliste optrede van ons vereniging veel daartoe bygedra om die gewig ten gunste van individuele onderrig te laat swaai13 (Malan 1970: 19).
He goes on to make the point that such actions obviously affect the entire music education population, and not just members of the SASMT (Malan 1970: 19).

Music in schools

The 1970 conference included various resolutions to the education departments, including allowing « music specialists or those trained in school music to teach class music in Primary School » and to recognise school activities such as Orff work and choir training as « professional services » of the teacher and not as a mere « extra mural activity » (Conference notes 1970: 10).
The Presidential Address of 1970 includes details of the music teaching system in the Cape Province as well as future changes in the schools. It is not clear why, in his address, the President chose to give details about just one province. It is also unusual for a Presidential address to be devoted to music in the school system. In summary, Malan had the following to say:
a) There is a shortage of teachers and an oversupply of pupils, with the increased availability of radio and recordings having not dampened their enthusiasm
b) The new school regulations stipulate that a primary school can have a music teacher if they have an enrolment of over 300 (previously 500)
c) Private teachers cannot compete with schools that offer free lessons, which may include theory, harmony, history, aural and analysis
d) Music teachers employed in schools now enjoy the same benefits as other teachers, such as sick leave, pension, etc.
e) Primary and High Schools pupils may now learn almost any instrument if a teacher is available
f) Percussion band features in the infant school and Orff is encouraged in the rest of the school, according to the new syllabus
g) Music Centres are being established in the bigger cities (Malan 1970: 21).
This is an interesting address in that it shows the extent of the changes that had taken place in the schools and which in turn necessitated similar changes in the SASMT. By the 1970s, private music teachers had in large numbers become employed by schools and because they did not all fulfil the criteria for joining the SASMT, the leadership of the Society was concerned that they were no longer in a position to maintain standards. In other words, for the average parent of a music pupil, it was sufficient that the teacher was employed by the school and it was not important what their qualifications were or whether they were members of the SASMT or not.
In another sense, however, Malan’s address also shows that there seems to be little continuity between one president and the next. In a year when the Society had decided to open its ranks to class music teachers, he chose to talk mainly about instrumental teachers working in the schools, and made no mention of the standard of class music in the schools.
The Society seems to ignore the fact that some of these instrumental teachers are, by virtue of being school-employed, now required to teach class music. It is quite probable that many of them have no training whatsoever in this field. This raises the question as to why the Society decided to admit them to membership in the first place – possibly only out of concern for what they do when they are teaching individuals. It seems as if the Society is fairly quick to change its membership criteria, but not as eager to consider the implications. If class music teachers are admitted as members, one would expect that the SASMT would have something to offer them.
The comment on Music Centres is also interesting and there is a trend in the early 2000s for some music centres and university departments to work closely with the local SASMT centre.
There is one further type of music teacher that has not been mentioned so far, and that is the general junior school teacher. These teachers will have received some method in music education at teacher training colleges or colleges of education and be required to provide class music for their own class.
(…) notwithstanding the fact that most of our universities have instituted class music courses where students are training to teach music courses from Sub A to Standard X. The two main reasons for not allowing specialist teachers, are, firstly that the Department trains its own class music teachers at training colleges, and secondly, it is assumed that small children derive more benefit when they have only one teacher to teach all subjects. The disadvantages of not having specialist music teachers are obvious to all musicians, especially when it is a well-known fact that some teachers from training colleges have a very meagre musical background (Malan 1970: 22).
Once again it is important to place all of this in the context prevailing at the time. Many of the points in the President’s address at the 1970 Conference are taken up again by J.P. Malan at an SASMT Convention held at Roodepoort in June 1970, where he starts by saying that the future of music in South Africa appears to be secure, considering the establishment of the Provincial Arts Councils; the fact that opera, ballet and symphony concerts are presented regularly; ten South African universities have music departments; and accomplished performers, composers and musicologists are making their mark. He goes on to say, however, that the true situation is far less healthy if one considers that a high proportion of South African music talent lives outside the country and that the local orchestras and opera houses rely on foreigners. He criticises the audience and critics for being biased against local performers and composers (Malan 1970: 8).
Malan puts this down to the following shortcomings:
a) There is no local music magazine or journal guiding music research
b) Training in music is without policy and direction
c) The music teaching profession enjoys no security
d) School music suffers from having different methods, standards and approaches in the different provinces (Malan 1970: 8).
Malan has identified an issue that has not often been addressed by the SASMT, namely the importance of the schools and the education system (as opposed to the music teacher) in promoting music in South Africa. He goes on to suggest that there are two types of music teachers in the country:
a) School music teachers who expose children to musical experiences that will equip them to be the audiences of the future
b) The music teacher aligned with the musical requirements of the country, for example the need for orchestral players (Malan 1970: 9).
It is noteworthy that he identifies the school music teacher as the one who will prepare the audiences of the future by giving children musical experiences at school, but he does not elaborate on this. It is also interesting to compare this rather passive view of class music with contrasting opinions that class music should be more of a creative process. This will become a significant point of discussion in the 1980s with the changes in the South African education system and the formation of SAMES.
Even though Malan supports the work of the class music teacher, he appears to favour the second type of teacher, as the one the country needs to produce orchestral players. He contrasts South Africa and Japan, drawing attention to the latter’s success in producing orchestral players. He ascribes this to their implementation of an appropriate music education policy:
Suid-Afrika het nog nooit ‘n geformuleerde beleid van hierdie aard gehad nie en die toestand van ons musieklewe in 1970 is die resultaat daarvan. Die musieklewe is gedra deur enkele groot geeste en dit het gefloreer en gekwyn met hulle kom en gaan14 (Malan 1970: 9).
This lack of a clear policy on music education is a recurring theme and will be discussed in detail later in Chapter 6.

J.D. Malan’s proposed national diploma

One of the proposals to solve the shortage of instrumental players was the institution of a National Diploma. Debate and discussion of this continued for about three years, starting with J.D. Malan’s Presidential address at the 1970 Conference and lasting at least until the Conference of 1973, which he also addressed on the matter.
Malan is critical of the overseas examination system, saying that although it did much to raise standards when it was introduced in the late 19th Century, it has evolved into a method of teaching, rather than a method of testing (Malan 1970: 10).
He goes into some detail about the licentiate system as imported from England, including the fact that the licentiate is available in various levels of prestige – associate, licentiate and graduate. Initially many South Africans went to one of the institutions in England to undertake these exams, but later the University of Good Hope (later Unisa) started the system in South Africa (Unie Onderwyslisensiaat15), using overseas examiners until the Second World War, after which they used local examiners. By 1970, nine South African universities (Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Natal, Port Elizabeth, Potchefstroom, Pretoria, Rhodes, Stellenbosch and Witwatersrand16) had instituted their own music teaching diplomas, which, together with the then Rhodesian College of Music and the existing overseas licentiates, meant that there were 22 music teaching qualifications available (Malan 1970: 10 and 1973: 15).
This huge crop of licentiates is the crowning absurdity of the examination system – the fruits of the conviction that art can be examined, that there are certain rules which when applied by an examiner enable him to read off as a percentage the artistic prowess of a child or young person (Malan 1973: 15).
He claims that this multiplicity of licentiates, together with the fact that many people acquire several of them, led to huge confusion in the teaching profession and in the education departments. While he is not in favour of assessing performance skills, he believes strongly that the ability to teach must be examined. He asserts that teachers need a highly specialised training and to achieve this, he proposes a South African National Teaching Diploma for music teachers, with one syllabus to be followed by all institutions. He proposes that the SASMT would have input and suggests aural and written examination of the following:
a) Proficiency on the instrument
b) Knowledge of form and theory of music
c) Thorough knowledge of practical teaching and child psychology
d) Knowledge of history and repertoire of the instrument (Malan 1970: 30 and 1973: 16).
Without giving reasons, he considers Unisa to be the best institution to moderate and control the process, with an examining board made up of five people, two nominated by the SASMT, two by the universities and one by the government (Malan 1970: 32-33/1973: 16).
Thus teaching is a responsibility – a national responsibility – and only properly trained people are allowed to exercise the profession (…) But the teaching of music has not been able to penetrate the ranks of the privileged professions. Anybody can still put up a sign and start teaching the pianoforte (Malan 1973: 16).
These words seem to hark back to the early days of the SASMT and its preoccupation with state registration of music teachers. Malan’s proposed National Diploma should, in his words, be recognised by all the departments of education and be regulated so carefully that without it a person is not able to teach. In other words, it must lead to music teaching becoming a protected profession (Malan 1970: 30).
In summary, he gives the advantages of a National Diploma as:
a) Protecting the interests of the profession with preference given to holders of the National Diploma in filling government teaching posts
b) Advancing the profession through rigorous training
c) Preventing young musicians from obtaining a variety of diplomas and thus losing focus on teaching (Malan 1973: 16).
Michael Whiteman, although agreeing with the sentiment of the National Diploma, pointed out the following pitfalls:
a) University autonomy may be compromised
b) It might limit the student’s experience and education
c) Overseas diplomas are valuable and should not be discarded
d) It is good to have a choice of examining body as it keeps up standards
e) The cost of examiners’ travelling would be prohibitive (Whiteman 1971a: 31).
The discussion around Malan’s proposal raises many issues. Firstly, it is interesting to see the shift in the Society’s thinking from the early days of campaigning for State Registration of Music Teachers. Initially the overseas licentiates were regarded as the ultimate benchmark, subsequently the Society gave input into their structure and application, and now in the 1970s it seems that the SASMT wants to implement its own benchmark.
Secondly, the proposal raises questions about the motivation for South Africa wanting to do things differently. Why, for example, if the multiple licentiate system has worked in other countries, should South Africa only have one? While acknowledging the need for a single education policy, why does this imply that a single examination is needed? If the need is to produce orchestral players, how will a single diploma assist this and how will this change the trend of the majority of students studying the piano?
Thirdly, even if it is accepted that the SASMT is concerned primarily with instrumental teaching, it is noteworthy that no mention is made of the need for a policy (or a similar National Diploma) to produce class music teachers. It has already been mentioned elsewhere that the proposal supports a specific viewpoint on the purpose of class music (that of producing appreciative listeners) and there is no mention of a more creative approach or indeed any reference to world music.
Finally, the SASMT does not appear at this time to have any interaction with teacher training colleges and it would be interesting to find out what their role was in training class music teachers.
By the 1970s it seems to be accepted that the universities were engaged in teacher training, although Malan does mention the weakness of having licentiate students in the same lectures as BA(Mus) or BMus, who are receiving, what he calls, a very broad training in music (Malan 1970: 30). This raises the debate concerning the relative status of degrees versus diplomas and the role of universities in training musicologists or teachers. It is, therefore, appropriate to look now at the relationship between the SASMT and the universities.

The SASMT and the universities

The SASMT’s relationship with the universities has changed and developed through its history, from the early days of advising Unisa on the conduct of its examination system, to later dealings with the other universities and their teacher licentiate qualifications.
As more and more SASMT members become associated with universities, the relationship changes again:
It will be observed that as musical activities were built up after the Second World War the expected steep rise in membership took place, from 400 to 753 in 13 years. But then suddenly in all provinces, gains in membership ceased and there has been an almost steady drop in membership during the remaining 12 years of the period to its present figure of about 650 (Whiteman 1973a: 5).
Although Whiteman attributes the overall membership decline to a rise in the cost of living, a new more demanding lifestyle or a slackening off in what the SASMT provides for its members, he also concedes that the most worrying fact is that only about half of newly qualified teachers are joining the SASMT (Whiteman 1973a: 5-6). He suggests that a further reason may be that teachers working in an institution already have the support and demands of that structure and do not necessarily need the support of an SASMT Centre in the same way as private teachers did in the past (Whiteman 1973a: 6).
The final outcome of this is « institutional membership » which enables members of the profession to « pull together » without extra commitments outside of their workplace, although they could join the local centre, as well, should they wish (Whiteman 1973a: 6).
First, however, it is necessary to look at the relationship between the SASMT and the universities.

The 1969 Commission of Enquiry into Universities

In 1969 the SASMT made a submission to the Commission of Enquiry into Universities. This comprised eight sections that were printed in the SAMT, but without naming an author. The submission can be summarised briefly as follows:
a) There are conflicting conceptions of the structure of a BMus degree. In the traditional British understanding the subjects included are practical and professional; in the European tradition the degree is concerned more with theoretical and academic subjects. The latter is best summed up as musicology or the science of music, whereas the other studies are more concerned with the aptitude and sensitivity which the teacher aims to develop in students.
b) The general South African public associates a degree in music with the practical and professional, much as they would in architecture or medicine. In Central Europe this is not the assumption because musicology degrees there are styled PhD.
c) There is a tendency in South Africa to limit the BMus to the theoretical and academic. This is misleading to the public and there is a danger that school principals will make unsuitable appointments of people who are not professionally qualified. In this regard it is asserted that the licentiate is of a higher standard than a BMus.
d) It has become difficult to maintain the register of music teachers in the SAMT, without looking into the syllabus of each degree course. The various BMus courses need to be classified (by the universities themselves) into those which are equivalent to a teaching diploma.
e) The SASMT suggested that the BMus retain its status as a qualification that includes professional competence in teaching or performing, and that a musicology degree should rather be called Bachelor in Musical Studies or a BA in Musicology (Executive Committee 1969: 21).

The universities, teacher training and musicology

As already mentioned, the relationship between the training of teachers as opposed to the training of performers is one that interested the SASMT, due mainly to the type of qualifications that they received and the effect this had on the membership criteria of the SASMT.
An article entitled Music in the South African university by Geoffrey Chew appeared in the SAMT of 1970 and raises more questions, being one of the rare occasions in the SAMT where music education is discussed in an African context.
Chew commences by drawing attention to three features of South African universities that he feels are relevant. Firstly, because higher education is widely diffused among the white South African population, he sees this as a reason for the lowering of standards, attracting students who are not necessarily committed or, as he puts it, « … the connections between the different branches of the subject have to be spelt out in words of one syllable if students are to grasp them at all » (Chew 1970: 11). Secondly, he maintains that all university music courses in South Africa make a sharp distinction between the theoretical and the practical, which he considers to the detriment of subjects such as harmony and form. Thirdly, South African universities are almost exclusively concerned with the music of Western Europe of the past 300 years:
Ethnomusicology (the study « of the music outside Western civilization and to a smaller extent, European folk music » B Nettl, Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology, London 1964, 1) and the study of African music are seldom mentioned at all in South African university syllabuses. If they appear at all, they occupy relatively unimportant positions and are quite secondary to the study of European music. It is interesting to speculate concerning the syllabuses envisaged for possible future music departments at the African universities in this country: none has been established so far. If other subjects can be taken as a guide, it seems likely that those syllabuses would be biased in the same direction as those of the « white » universities (Chew 1970: 11).
Chew draws attention to two major aspects of South Africa’s position in the world of music:
a) South African universities should study music in the context of Africa, and not just deal with the history of Western Art Music in Africa, and
b) South Africa is « musically peripheral » and exists on the fringes not only of Western Art Music, but possibly of African music as well. This is the reason that African music tends to be studied from a sociological rather than musicological viewpoint (Chew 1970: 12).
Chew asserts that the South African musician is living in something of a dream world, maintained by importing foreign virtuosi and performers. He comments on what he considers the folly of maintaining European-style conservatoires of music and goes on to say that the purpose of the university music department should be to pursue what he calls the « truth » of music, and to promote ethnomusicology. He considers « truth » to be the pure discipline of music, but he does concede that universities are criticised if their courses do not secure employment for the graduate and for this reason, university music departments become involved in activities traditionally associated with conservatoires or music schools. He maintains that the practical subject in the university should exist in a support role to the academic one (Chew 1970: 12-13).
Chew is strongly in favour of founding the university course on ethnomusicology in addition to the history of music. He goes to great lengths to say that this will fail if the inclusion of African music (at South African universities) is done only for nationalistic or paternalistic reasons. By the same token, he points out that tried and tested European methods should not arrogantly be rejected, if the motivation is merely to be anti-colonial (Chew 1970: 12). He makes the closing point that even in Europe an exclusively Western outlook now seems parochial:
Counterpoint, for example, is at present often taught through the study of sixteenth century or eighteenth century Western European counterpoint; the study of the contrapuntal rhythms in African music might well add a new dimension to its study. Similarly, aural training may, presumably with profit, be pursued through an increasing sensitivity to the sonorities created in non-European music (…) (Chew 1970: 33).
In the SAMT edition following Chew’s article, the editor mentions the articles by Malan and Chew, saying that « Members could with advantage reflect on and discuss the problems raised » (Whiteman 1971a: 31). He goes on to discuss at length the merits of the National Diploma suggested by Malan but does not comment on the article by Chew.
The structure of South African music degrees is taken up again in the article Universitêre Musiekstudie (III) by Henk Temmingh, who is of the opinion that the South African degree is « noch vlees, noch vis »17 and questions why so little attention is given to musicological studies:
Die antwoord is soos volg: by wetenskaplike sake bly dit vir die Suid-Afrikaanse musiekstudent nie. Hy bespeel ook ‘n hoofinstrument (In die meeste gevalle moet hy aan die einde van die vierde jaar « lisensiaatstandaard » bereik), hy bespeel ‘n by-instrument, hy ondergaan gehoortoetse, bestudeer die metodiek van sy hoofinstrument en dikwels ook dié van die moderne musiekpedagogie in die algemeen (skoolmusiek) en neem ten slotte dikwels kennis van die algemene musiekrepertorium.
Daar word dus gekonstateer dat weens sy « praktiese » bedrywighede die student se wetenskaplike vorming skade ly18 (Temmingh 1971: 7).
Temmingh paints quite a gloomy picture of the courses at South African universities saying that the present system is not producing sufficiently specialised people in any field – musicologists, performers or teachers. He is of the opinion that the diplomas offered by most universities do not belong in such institutions, which should restrict their activities to musicology (Temmingh 1971: 8).

Table of contents
Declaration
Abstract
Key terms
Acknowledgements
Table of contents
Acronyms and abbreviations
List of Appendices
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Research question
1.2 Aims
1.3 Personal motivation
1.4 Methodology and theoretical perspective
1.5 Research ethics
1.6 Notes to the reader
1.7 Outline of the thesis
1.8 Literature review and sources
Chapter 2 Early history of the SASMT
2.1 The social context and background of the 1930s
2.2 The constitution
2.3 Membership
2.4 Early trends in the 1930s and 1940s
2.5 New preoccupations in the 1950s and 1960s
2.6 Membership Issues once more
2.7 Summary and conclusions
Chapter 3 The 1970s and the need for change
3.1 Music in schools
3.2 J.D. Malan’s proposed national diploma
3.3 The SASMT and the universities
3.4 The SASMT and schools
3.5 Achievements and challenges after 50 years
3.6 Summary and conclusions
Chapter 4 The 1980s and national conferences
4.1 The First National Music Educators’ Conference 1985
4.2 Music education in South Africa in the 1980s
4.3 Second National Conference 1987
4.4 Third National Conference 1989
4.5 Music Education: Why? What? How? Pretoria 1990
4.6 Interim Independent Forum on Music Education 1991
4.7 Fourth National Music Educators’ Conference 1991
4.8 Post-democracy SAMES National Conferences
4.9 Common themes at the national conferences
4.10 The early 1990s and the SASMT
4.11 Summary and conclusions
Chapter 5 1994 and a new dispensation
5.1 The SASMT in the context of the 1990s
5.2 The SASMT in the 21st Century – new directions
5.3 The views of the membership
5.4 Summary and conclusions
Chapter 6 Defining a professional association
6.1 Features of a professional association
6.2 Professional associations in other countries
6.3 Umbrella organisations
6.4 National Association for Music Education (NAfME)
6.5 International Society for Music Education (ISME)
6.6 PASMAE
6.7 Assessing the effectiveness of a professional association
6.8 A professional association in South Africa
6.9 Summary and conclusions
Chapter 7 Conclusions and recommendations
7.1 History and contribution
7.2 Recurring themes
7.3 Transformation
7.4 Professional association
7.5 Conclusions
8 References
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