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Introduction

We live in a world that has seen a multitude of scientific and technological innovations and advances. One arguably revolutionary innovation has been the advent and proliferation of the Internet. The Internet along with various other Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) has drastically changed the modus operandi of private business, government and the non-profit sector. These organisations have chosen to utilise ICTs to survive in an increasingly dynamic, demanding and complex world. Furthermore, organisations have seen expectations for value and quality of services rise from their various stakeholders (Devadoss et al., 2003). In response, governments, businesses and charities alike have invested in ICT solutions with the hope of fulfilling some of the expectations of their manifold stakeholders.

Background and Motivation for the Research

It is acknowledged that the public sector faces unique challenges in delivering services to their constituents including: having a complex service offering for a variety of customers; standardisation as a prerequisite for integrated and user-focused service delivery; facing limited funding and technical resources; as well as a change resistant bureaucratic culture and other organisational impediments (Ho, 2002, Heeks, 2003, Janssen and Shu, 2008, Wang, 2009).

Context of the Study

The sub-Saharan Africa region commonly refers to countries that geographically lie south of the Sahara desert (United-Nations, 2014). The study acknowledges that the region comprises of countries that have varying histories, demographics, economic, political, cultural and social experiences. However, the study also notes that through for example trends in globalisation driven by economic integration efforts, increasing trade, political factors, improving transport systems, mobility of human resources, infrastructure investments, telecommunications revolution and growth of ICTs (Santos, 2002, Giddens, 2002, Mazilu, 2010) the continent is becoming increasingly interdependent and interlinked in a highly complex manner. This increasing integration of the region is recognised by this study and may influence development efforts (Lawal, 2006). The study reflected on sub-Saharan Africa but drew data from primarily South Africa as an example of a developing country. The following section thus accordingly provides a brief overview of the South African context to position the study.

Historical Background

The country is based at the southern tip of the African continent. Historically the country was inhabited by the San, Khoi and over time the Bantu indigenous groups. The country experienced European and British colonisation beginning in 1652; and was later ruled by Afrikaners (see GCIS, 2013a, Ross, 1999, SAHO, 2013). From the early 1900‘s institutionalised segregation between the majority black and minority white residents began to emerge. The official policy of the Afrikaans Nationalist Party for institutionalised segregation originated in 1948 in the form of ―apartheid‖. Apartheid continued until it was resisted globally and a negotiated settlement was reached in the 1990‘s culminating in the first democratic elections in 1994 (GCIS, 2013a). The country developed and adopted a new constitution by 1996 and is currently led by the African National Congress majority government (SAHO, 2013).

ABSTRACT
DECLARATION
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION & BACKGROUND
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION FOR THE RESEARCH
1.3 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY
1.3.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
1.3.2 GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE
1.3.3 SOUTH AFRICA AS A DEVELOPMENTAL STATE
1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.5 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH
1.6 RESEARCH APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY OVERVIEW
1.7 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.8 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
1.9 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF ICT FOR DEVELOPMENT
1.10 THESIS OUTLINE
1.11 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. INTRODUCTION
2.2. ICT IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
2.2.1. THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
2.2.2. E-GOVERNMENT
2.2.3. E-GOVERNMENT VS. E-GOVERNANCE
2.2.4. THE PURPOSE OF E-GOVERNMENT
2.2.5. E-GOVERNMENT PERSPECTIVES
2.2.5.1. RELATIONSHIP PERSPECTIVE
2.2.5.2. EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
2.2.6. NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT AND E-GOVERNMENT
2.2.6.1. FOUNDATIONS AND OBJECTIVES OF NPM
2.2.6.2. NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD
2.2.6.3. E-GOVERNMENT AND NPM PHILOSOPHIES
2.2.6.4. CRITICISM OF NPM AND THE EMERGENCE OF POST-NPM PHILOSOPHIES
2.2.7. PUBLIC VALUE PRINCIPLES
2.2.7.1. DEFINING PUBLIC VALUE
2.2.7.2. PUBLIC VALUE AND E-GOVERNMENT
2.3. E-GOVERNMENT AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
2.3.1. DEVELOPMENT
2.3.2. THE CONTRIBUTION OF ICT‘S TO DEVELOPMENT
2.3.3. DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY
2.3.4. PERSPECTIVES ON ICT AND DEVELOPMENT
2.4. E-GOVERNMENT CHALLENGES
2.4.1. IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES
2.4.2. THE E-GOVERNMENT MYTH
2.4.3. E-GOVERNMENT OUTCOMES
2.5. FOCUS ON BENEFITS AND IMPACTS OF E-GOVERNMENT
2.6. TOWARDS TRANSFORMATIONAL GOVERNMENT
2.6.1. ALTERNATIVE CONCEPTUALISATION
2.6.2. UNDERSTANDING TRANSFORMATION
2.7. E-PARTICIPATION OF CITIZENS
2.8. CITIZEN ADOPTION FACTORS
2.8.1. DIGITAL DIVIDE
2.8.2. ACCESS
2.8.3. SKILLS
2.8.4. ATTITUDE
2.9. MOBILE GOVERNMENT
2.10. E-GOVERNMENT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
2.11. RESEARCHER‘S REFLECTIONS ON THE LITERATURE
2.12. SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 PHILOSOPHICAL PARADIGMS
3.3 THE PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS OF THIS STUDY
3.4 CRITICAL REALISM
3.4.1 THE ONTOLOGY AND EPISTEMOLOGY OF CRITICAL REALISM
3.4.2 CRITIQUES OF CRITICAL REALISM
3.4.3 APPLICATION OF CRITICAL REALISM TO THE RESEARCH STUDY
3.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.5.1 RESEARCH APPROACH
3.5.2 CASE STUDY STRATEGY
3.5.3 METHODOLOGICAL PLURALISM
3.5.4 QUALITY OF THE RESEARCH
3.5.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.6 THE ROLE OF THEORY
3.6.1 THEORY AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS RESEARCH
3.6.2 CRITICAL REALIST REFLECTIONS ON THEORY
3.6.3 APPLICATION OF THEORY
3.7 AXIOLOGY
3.8 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4: STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR T-GOVERNMENT
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 SOUTH AFRICAN ICT LANDSCAPE
4.2.1 TOWARDS A NEW ICT POLICY
4.2.2 DEPARTMENTS INFLUENCING E-GOVERNMENT
4.3 PUBLIC SECTOR STRATEGIC PLANNING
4.3.1 CHALLENGES OF PUBLIC SECTOR PLANNING
4.3.2 STRATEGIC PLANNING IN SOUTH AFRICA
4.3.3 STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR TRANSFORMATIONAL GOVERNMENT
4.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
4.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY OVERVIEW
4.6 SUMMARY OF DEPARTMENT STRATEGIC PLANS
4.6.1 DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION
4.6.2 DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC SERVICE AND ADMINISTRATION
4.6.3 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
4.7 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.8 STRATEGIC PLANNING INSIGHTS
4.8.1 POLICY ENVIRONMENT AND T-GOVERNMENT CONCEPTUALISATION
4.8.2 INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY
4.8.3 LINGERING E-GOVERNMENT MYTHS
4.8.4 IN SEARCH OF PUBLIC SECTOR VALUES
4.8.5 NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT IDEOLOGIES
4.9 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5: ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN E-GOVERNMENT PROJECTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 CITIZEN PARTICIPATION
5.2.1 BACKGROUND TO CITIZEN PARTICIPATION
5.2.2 JUSTIFICATION FOR PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
5.2.3 E-PARTICIPATION IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
5.3 THE RELEVANCE OF E-PARTICIPATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
5.4 THEORETICAL FRAMING OF THE STUDY: AN ACTOR NETWORK PERSPECTIVE
5.4.1 CENTRAL TENETS OF ACTOR NETWORK THEORY
5.4.2 CRITIQUING ACTOR NETWORK THEORY
5.4.3 APPLICABILITY OF ACTOR NETWORK THEORY
5.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.5.1 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
5.5.2 DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
5.6 CASE STUDY BACKGROUND: THE GAUTENG FREEWAY IMPROVEMENT PROJECT
5.6.1 OVERVIEW OF ELECTRONIC TOLLING
5.6.2 RATIONALE FOR ELECTRONIC TOLLING
5.6.3 CASE SIGNIFICANCE AND RELEVANCE
5.7 PROJECT ACTORS
5.8 TIMELINE OF KEY PROJECT MILESTONES
5.9 NETWORK ANALYSIS: IMPACT OF KEY PROJECT DECISIONS
5.10 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
5.10.1 PROBLEMATISATION
5.10.2 INTERESSMENT
5.10.3 ENROLMENT
5.10.4 MOBILISATION
5.10.5 IRREVERSIBILITY
5.11 E-PARTICIPATION FOR SUSTAINABILITY OF T-GOVERNMENT PROGRAMMES
5.12 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6: ASSESSING T-GOVERNMENT REALITIES IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MUNICIPALITIES FOR T-GOVERNMENT
6.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
6.3.1 POPULATION AND SAMPLE
6.3.2 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
6.3.3 DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS
6.4 REFLECTIONS ON CONVERSATIONS WITH LOCAL GOVERNMENT
6.5 GOVERNANCE ASPECTS
6.5.1 PROFILE OF THE ICT FUNCTION
6.5.2 SUSTAINABILITY OF E-GOVERNMENT
6.5.3 EVALUATION OF PROJECTS
6.6 ORGANISATIONAL AND MANAGERIAL ASPECTS
6.6.1 SILOS IN GOVERNMENT
6.6.2 POLITICAL LEADERSHIP AND EXECUTIVE MANAGEMENT
6.6.3 STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT
6.6.4 IN SEARCH OF AN ICT CHAMPION
6.7 ACCESS TO RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGY ASPECTS
6.7.1 THE REALITIES OF LOCAL MUNICIPALITIES
6.7.2 FUNDING
6.7.3 ICT SKILLS
6.8 CITIZEN FACTORS
6.8.1 TRUST
6.8.2 LANGUAGE POLICY IMPLICATIONS
6.8.3 E-PARTICIPATION IN MUNICIPALITIES
6.9 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7: CITIZEN FACTORS FOR T-GOVERNMENT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 BACKGROUND
7.2.1 DIGITAL DIVIDE AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION
7.2.2 E-GOVERNMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
7.2.3 MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES ADVANCING E-PARTICIPATION
7.3 NETWORK BRICOLAGE
7.4 ACCESS, SKILLS AND ATTITUDES OF CITIZENS
7.5 CONCEPTUAL MODEL
7.6 MODEL CONSTRUCTS
7.7 MODEL PROPOSITION
7.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
7.9 RESEARCH PROCEDURES
7.10 MODEL RELIABILITY ANALYSIS AND VALIDATION
7.11 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
7.11.1 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
7.11.2 CLUSTER ANALYSIS
7.12 DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
7.12.1 NETWORK BRICOLAGE FOR SUSTAINABLE E-PARTICIPATION IN AFRICA
7.12.2 NETWORK BRICOLAGE FOR SUSTAINABLE MASS SCALE ADOPTION
7.12.3 ELECTRONIC LITERACY AS A BASIS FOR AN E-PARTICIPATION STRATEGY
7.13 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 8: TOWARDS A T-GOVERNMENT FRAMEWORK
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 REVISITING THE RESEARCH QUESTION
8.3 CRITICAL REALIST INFERENCE
8.4 KEY LESSONS FROM EMPIRICAL OBSERVATIONS
8.5 KEY LESSONS FROM THE LITERATURE REVIEW
8.5.1 NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT
8.5.2 T-GOVERNMENT CONCEPT
8.5.3 PUBLIC VALUE PRINCIPLES
8.5.4 E-PARTICIPATION OF CITIZENS
8.5.5 SUSTAINABILITY AND EVALUATION
8.6 MECHANISMS FOR T-GOVERNMENT
8.7 DISCUSSION
8.7.1 PARTICIPATORY GOVERNANCE
8.7.2 TRANSFORMATIVE TECHNOLOGY AND INFRASTRUCTURE INNOVATION
8.7.3 TRANSPARENCY AND TRUST IN GOVERNMENT
8.7.4 PUBLIC SECTOR EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY
8.7.5 MONITORING AND EVALUATION
8.8 TOWARDS A T-GOVERNMENT FRAMEWORK
8.8.1 DEFINING T-GOVERNMENT
8.8.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FRAMEWORK
8.8.2.1 CITIZENS AND THEIR REQUIREMENTS FOR PUBLIC VALUE
8.8.2.2 MULTI-TIERED GOVERNMENT
8.8.2.3 ENSEMBLE OF ICT SOLUTIONS
8.8.2.4 PUBLIC SECTOR VALUES
8.8.2.5 CITIZEN FACTORS
8.8.2.6 OUTCOMES FOCUSED
8.9 TOWARDS GUIDING PRINCIPLES
8.10 REFLECTIONS ON THE FRAMEWORK
8.11 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 ADDRESSING THE MAIN RESEARCH QUESTION
9.3 LIMITING CONCEPTUALISATION OF T-GOVERNMENT
9.4 PROPOSED T-GOVERNMENT FRAMEWORK
9.5 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
9.5.1 THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTION
9.5.2 METHODOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTION
9.5.3 PRACTICAL CONTRIBUTION
9.5.4 ASSESSING THE RESEARCH STUDY AND CONTRIBUTIONS
9.6 LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
9.7 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES