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Experimental groups
Once the LSM score of each participating household was known, the sample could be assigned to the two experimental conditions of the study. The LSM grouping was used as the pre-existing characteristic (the ex post facto entity) in the combined ex post facto and experimental research design. Using the pool of participants that volunteered, the participants were randomly assigned to either Experimental Group 1 (n=19) or Experimental Group 2 (n=17), in order to ensure inclusion of both LSM groups in each of the experimental groups.
The sample size in the study was small (n=41) and the sample was divided into several subcategories for the LSM, experimental group and season of measurement. Since winter provides a stronger reaction to the elements and exacerbates energy use circumstances in households (Littleford, Firth, & Ryley, 2012), assessments conducted during winter were specifically identified.
These smaller groups held a number of implications for analysis and these are discussed in Section 4.8. Participants were not aware of their experimental group allocation. Table Error! Reference source not found.18 presents the distribution of the 41 households into the LSM and the experimental groups. Initially, the sample included in this study consisted of 41 households. However, some of the households did not participate in all the data collection phases for various reasons (these are discussed where relevant). Each of the sections that contain the data from the different collection phases presents a demographic breakdown of the participants and households that participated in that particular phase.
Intervention
In this section, the intervention as an instrument of manipulation and the procedure for applying the intervention in each of the experimental groups is discussed. As part of any experiment, a manipulation is introduced in order to ascertain its impact on behaviour (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).
Although both Experimental Groups 1 and 2 received an intervention, the intervention in Experimental Group 1 differed significantly from the one administered in Experimental Group 2.
Both experimental groups received the same real-time feedback on electricity consumption, but the purpose of the intervention (in Experimental Group 1 in particular) was to encourage and maximize residential energy conservation.
Development of the intervention
The intervention in Experimental Group 1 combined best practice intervention strategies reported in the behaviour change literature, as discussed in Chapter 3, and based on theories discussed in Chapter 2. The evidence base for these best practice strategies presented in Table 19, was discussed in section 3.4.1.1.
These best practice interventions have been proven to be effective to some extent in limiting electricity consumption. In short, the intervention consists of the particularization of information, real-time feedback, goal setting, and commitment-making. In the following section, each of these aspects are briefly discussed and linked to the attitude behaviour theories, indicating the reasons why they are successful.
Sampling people who already hold positive attitude: According to Ajzen (1991), attitude is an important factor that would lead to behavioural intention. From the empowerment spiral (Mehlmann et al., 2010), a level of environmental concern (have a caring attitude toward the environment) would influence a consequent search for information. Particularization of information: The perception of behavioural control leads to behavioural intention and ultimately also changes in behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). Particularized information in the form of an energy audit in the home of the participant will not only give information but would enable decision-making, remove barriers of misinformation and improve perceived ability to deal with the situation at hand.
Feedback: Real-time continuous feedback is effective in strengthening the link between electricity curtailment behaviour and its impact on kWh consumption (Abrahamse et al., 2005). Feedback might be effective because it emphasises awareness of the effect of habitual behaviour on energy consumption (Fischer, 2008). This is described by Prochaska et al. (1992) as the consciousness-raising or environmental re-evaluation stages of change. Goal-setting: McCalley and Midden (2002) however states that a goal without feedback is useless and feedback without a goal is not sensible. This is because the goal gives a standard for a person to judge the feedback and determine whether he is doing well or not. The effectiveness of the feedback can only be assessed when you understand the goal. It was therefore imperative to include a goal-setting exercise that would guide the research participants’ understanding of the feedback.
1 Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 The context
1.2 The global context of climate change and the South African reality
1.3 The macro-economic environment and energy use in South Africa
1.4 The focus on the individual in context – environmental psychology
1.5 Previous research from an environmental psychology perspective on residential energy efficiency
1.6 Background to this study and research questions
1.7 Theoretical framework
1.8 Methodological overview
1.9 Overview of this study
1.10 Conclusion
2 Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The ecological and systems theory approaches
2.3 Ontology
2.4 Epistemology
2.5 Justification for using the ecological approach and systems theory
2.6 Attitude-behaviour theories
2.7 Social theories
2.8 Summary of the attitude-behaviour and social theories
2.9 Conclusion
3 Chapter 3: Literature Review
3.1 Introduction: research in the field of household electricity use
3.2 The unit of research in energy efficiency studies
3.3 Motivations and barriers to environmental action
3.4 Strategies for saving electricity
3.5 Shortcomings in prior studies and opportunities for research
3.6 Conclusion
4 Chapter 4: Research Methodology
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background to the study
4.3 Mixed methodology
4.4 Research design
4.5 The process of analysis
4.6 Ethical considerations
4.7 Quality of the research
4.8 Conclusion
5 Chapter 5: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Analysis Findings
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Phase 1: Demographic overview of the study participants
5.3 Phase 2, Part 1: In-depth interview findings
5.4 Phase 2: Part 2 – Quantitative results: electricity usage data
5.5 Phase 3: Focus group discussion findings
5.6 Phase 4: Findings from the mixed methods analysis
5.7 Conclusion
6 Chapter 6: Conceptual Discussion
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Over-arching themes: A conceptual discussion
6.3 A conceptual model of residential energy efficiency in South Africa
6.4 Outcomes and application of these findings
6.5 Limitations of this study
6.6 Recommendations for future research
6.7 Policy implications
6.8 Conclusion
7 References
