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Table of contents
PART I. SECTION I. GLACIATIONS, TROPIC CLIMATE, TROPICAL GLACIERS AND ANDEAN GLACIATIONS
I-1.0 QUATERNARY GLACIATIONS BACKGROUND
I-1.1 GENERALITIES AND CAUSES
I-1.2 GLACIALS AND INTERGLACIALS CLASSIFICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS
I-1.3 LAST GLACIATION AND CLIMATE EVENTS INVOLVED
I-1.3.1 Last Glaciation
I-1.3.2 Dansgaard-Oeschger (D-O) and Heinrich events
I-1.3.3 Last Glacial Maximum
I-1.3.4 Late Glacial (LG)
I-2.0 TROPICAL ANDES, CLIMATE AND GLACIERS BEHAVIORS
I-2.1 CLIMATE OF THE TROPICAL ANDES, OVERVIEW
I-2.2 TROPICAL ANDEAN GLACIERS
I-2.2.1 Mass balance
I-2.2.2 Equilibrium Line Altitudes (ELA)
I-3.0 TROPICAL ANDEAN GLACIATIONS
I-3.1 PREVIOUS MIS 5 AND MIS 5 GLACIERS ADVANCES (SMITH ET AL., 2008)
I-3.2 MIS 3, MIS 2 AND MIS 1 GLACIERS ADVANCES (CORONATO AND RABASSA, 2007; SMITH ET AL., 2008)
SECTION II. A BACKGROUND GLACIATIONS RECONSTRUCTION METHODS
II-1.0 METHODS FOR GLACIATIONS RECONSTRUCTION STUDIES
II-1.1 PALEOGLACIOLOGY
II-1.1.1 Moraines, an important glacial feature in paleoglaciology studies
II-1.1.1.1 Moraines to reconstruct paleoclimate and limitations
II.1.1.1.2 Topographic control on the moraines distribution in the landscape
II-1.2 GEOCHRONOLOGICAL METHODS USED TO STUDY QUATERNARY GLACIATIONS
SECTION III. GENERAL GEOLOGICAL, CLIMATE AND PALEOCLIMATE
III-1.0 GENERAL GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS
III-2.0 GLACIATIONS RECONSTRUCTIONS IN THE CENTRAL MÉRIDA ANDES
III-3.0 PALEOCLIMATE SETTINGS
III-4.0 PRESENT-DAY CLIMATE IN THE VENEZUELAN ANDES
SECTION IV. METHODOLOGY
IV-1.0 GEOCHRONOLOGY METHOD BASED ON TERRESTRIAL COSMOGENICS NUCLIDES (TCN)-10BE NUCLIDE DATING
IV-1.1 INTERACTION BETWEEN COSMIC RAYS AND MATTER
IV-1.2 TERRESTRIAL COSMOGENICS NUCLIDES (TCN)-10BE NUCLIDE DATING
IV-1.3 SLHL TCN PRODUCTION RATE SCALING (LOCAL PARAMETERS CONTROLLING THE
10BE PRODUCTION RATE)
IV-1.3.1 Magnetic field and latitudinal dependence
IV-1.3.2 Altitudinal dependence
IV-1.3.3 Topographic dependence
IV-1.3.4 Depth production
IV-1.3.5 Temporal evolution of TCN concentration
IV-2.0 STUDY AREA LOCATION AND SAMPLES COLLECTION
IV-3.0 SAMPLES PREPARATION
IV-3.1 QUARTZ SEPARATION FROM BULK MATERIAL
IV-3.2 CHEMICAL 10BE EXTRACTION IN THE BEO FORM
IV-4.0 10BE CONCENTRATION DETERMINATION USING ACCELERATOR MASS SPECTROMETRY (AMS)
IV-5.0 10BE PRODUCTION RATES, EROSION VALUE, SCALING SCHEME AND EXPOSURE AGES CALCULATION
IV-6.0 GEOMORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND FORMER GLACIERS RECONSTRUCTIONS
IV-7.0 PALEO ELA RECONSTRUCTION
IV-7.1 ACCUMULATION-AREA RATIO (AAR)
IV-7.2 AREA–ALTITUDE BALANCE RATIOS (AABR)
IV-7.3 PALEO ELA CORRECTIONS
PART II. SECTION V. RESULTS
V-1.0 GENERALITIES ABOUT STUDIED GLACIAL LANDFORMS, 10BE CONCENTRATIONS,
10BE PRODUCTION RATES AND EXPOSURE AGES
V-1.1 WHY GLACIAL LANDFORMS STUDIED?
V-1.2 10BE CONCENTRATIONS
V-1.3 10BE PRODUCTION RATES USED AND INFLUENCES IN THE EXPOSURE AGES 109
V-2.0 DETAILED GLACIAL GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES AND DEGLACIATION CHRONOLOGIES
V-2.1 SIERRA NEVADA
V-2.1.1 Mucubají and Los Zerpa
V-2.1.2 Gavidia valley
V-2.1.3 Mucuchache valley, El Caballo and Las Tapias moraines
V-2.1.3.1 Geomorphological descriptions and previous studies
V-2.1.3.2 Exposure ages and outliers
V-2.2 SIERRA DEL NORTE:
V-2.2.1 La Culata moraines/Mucujún valley
V-2.2.1.1 Geomorphological descriptions and previous studies
V-2.2.1.2 Exposure ages and outliers
V-2.2.2 Mifafí valley and El Desecho moraine
V-2.2.2.1 Geomorphological descriptions
V-2.2.2.2 Exposure ages and outliers
V-2.3 CORDILLERA DE TRUJILLO (PUEBLO LLANO VALLEY/LA CANOA)
V-2.3.1 Previous studies
V-2.3.2 Glacial geomorphological features
V-2.3.2 Exposure ages and outliers
V.3.0 PALEO ELA VALUES
V- 3.1 PREVIOUS STUDIES
V- 3.2 RESULTS
PART III. SECTION VI. DISCUSSIONS
VI-1 DEGLACIATION HISTORIES IN THE CENTRAL MÉRIDA ANDES AND PRINCIPAL GEOMORPHIC PARAMETERS DRIVING THE FORMER GLACIERS DYNAMICS
VI-1.1 DEGLACIATION HISTORIES IN THE CENTRAL MÉRIDA ANDES
VI-1.1.1 Mucubají valley (Sierra Nevada)
VI-1.1.2 Mucuchahe valley (Sierra Nevada)
VI-1.1.3 Gavidia valley (Sierra Nevada)
VI-1.1.4 Mifafí valley (Sierra del Norte)
VI-1.2 NON CLIMATIC PARAMETERS DRIVING DIFFERENT DYNAMICS OF THE FORMER GLACIERS
VI-2 DEGLACIATION CHRONOLOGIES AND GLACIATION RECONSTRUCTIONS IMPLICATIONS IN THE CENTRAL MA
VI-3.0 PALEOGLACIOLOGY CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PALEOCLIMATE RECORD IN THE CENTRAL MA
VI-3.1 REGIONAL AND GLOBAL CLIMATE FORCING DRIVING CENTRAL MÉRIDA ANDES GLACIER VARIABILITIES
