The Aztec civilization

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Table of contents

CHAPTER I
GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE COPALS 
1.1 General presentation of Mexican copals
1.2 Botanical and geographical distribution
1.2.1 Botanical sources and collection
1.3 Historical Context
1.3.1 The Maya civilization
1.3.2 Chichén Itzá city
1.3.3 Importance of “Sacred Cenote” at Chichén Itzá and their offerings
1.4 The Aztec civilization
1.4.1 The foundation of Mexico-Tenochtitlán
1.4.2 The rise of Aztec empire
1.4.3 The importance of “Templo Mayor” site
1.4.4 The building stages in Templo Mayor construction
1.5 Uses and properties
1.5.1 Copal uses in ancient Mexico
1.5.2 Contemporary uses and applications of copal
1.6 Previous works on chemical composition of Mexican copals
1.7 Oleo-gum-resin: definitions
1.8 Gums
1.9 Gum composition of Bursera simaruba
1.10 Fats
1.11 Terpenic resins
1.12 Bio synthesis of terpenic precursors
1.13 The essential oils
1.13.1 Triterpens
1.13.2 The ursans
1.13.3 The oleanans
1.13.4 The lupans
1.13.5 Biological activity
CHAPTER II
PRESENTATION OF THE COPAL SAMPLES AND THE ANALYTICAL STRATEGY 
2.1 Extraction of copal
2.2 Resins from botanical certified origin
2.2.1 Botanical References
2.2.2 Choice of studied species
2.3 Archaeological samples from Templo Mayor site
2.3.1 Description of the offerings from Templo Mayor
2.3.2 Macroambiental conditions
2.3.3 Microambiental conditions
2.4 Description of archeological Aztec offerings
2.4.1 Offering 120
2.4.2 Offering 125
2.4.3 Offering 126
2.4.4 Offering 128
2.5 Archaeological sample from the “Sacred Cenote” of Chichén Itzá
2.5.1 Macroambiental conditions
2.5.2 The Chichén Itzá Cenote: microambiental conditions
2.5.3 Underwater Chichén Itzá cenote explorations
2.6 Commercial Samples
2.7 Presentation of the Analytical Strategy
2.8 Study by optical microscopy
2.9 Conclusion
PART B Analytical Study of the resins and Discussion
CHAPTER III
SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES: FTIR 
3.1 Mathematical Treatment of Experimental data: chemometric strategies
3.1.1 Principal Component Analysis
3.1.2 Linear discriminant analysis (LDA)
3.2 Chemotaxonomy. Correlation of resin composition and botanical origin
3.2.1 Terpenoids and chemotaxonomy
3.3 Study by Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
3.3.1 FTIR spectra of terpene and terpene like molecules
3.4 Sampling Methods: transmission methods
3.5 Reflectance Methods
3.6 Results and discussion
3.7 PCA
3.8 Linear discriminant analysis
3.9 Application to a botanical origin certified sample
3.10 Application to two commercial samples of copal
3.11 Deconvolution of the bands in the region between 1200 and 1300 cm -1 of the spectra. Application of the technique to two commercial resins
3.12 Application to archeological resins
3.13 Partial analysis of the surface of the samples
3.13.1 Comparison of partial analysis from commercial samples and a naturally aged sample of them.
3.13.2 Spectra variation between external and internal part of an archaeological sample TMT
3.14 Conclusions
CHAPTER IV
HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY -UV/VIS ANALYSIS 
4.1 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
4.2 Standard molecules
4.3 Quantification of triterpenoids: analytical calibration
4.4 Global analysis of certified resin samples
4.5 Comparison of global chromatograms from certified origin resins
4.6 Comparison of global chromatograms from commercial resins
4.7 Comparison of global chromatograms of archaeological resins
4.8 HPLC coupled to PCA analysis for botanical certified resins
4.9 Linear Discriminant Analysis
4.10 HPLC coupled to PCA analysis for archeological resins
4.11 Purification by Solid Phase Extraction (SPE)
4.12.1 General Methodology
4.13 Conclusion
CHAPTER V
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY-MASS SPECTROMETRY 
5.1 Derivatization
5.2 The study of standard triterpenoic molecules
5.3 Results of the study on botanical certified samples
5.4 Comparison of global chromatograms from certified origin resins
5.5 Insight on triterpenic composition for samples of certificated origin
5.5.1 Comparison between B. bipinnata and B. stenophylla resins
5.5.2 B. excelsa triterpenic composition
5.5.3 B. grandifolia triterpenic composition
5.5.4 B. laxiflora triterpenic composition
5.5.5 B. penicillata triterpenic composition
5.5.6 B. simaruba triterpenic composition
5.5.7 B. copallifera triterpenic composition
5.6 Study of archeological samples
5.6.1 Molecular composition of archeological sample 26
5.6.2 Molecular composition of archeological sample 51
5.6.3 Molecular composition of archeological sample 52
5.6.4 Molecular composition of archeological sample 84
5.6.5 Molecular composition of archeological sample 173
5.6.7 Molecular composition of archeological sample TMT
5.6.8 Molecular composition of archeological sample 140
5.6.9 Molecular composition of archeological sample from Chichén Itzá
5.7 Study of commercial samples
5.7.1 Molecular composition of Sidral
5.7.2 Molecular composition of commercial sample SONB4
5.7.3 Comparison between molecular composition of ATZJ2 and SONB4
5.7.4 Molecular composition Oaxc2
5.7.5 Molecular composition IZUP1 and SONR1
5.8 Comparison of partial analysis from the surface and the inner part of the samples
5.8.1 Comparison between SONB4 and a sample naturally aged portion of it
5.8.2 Molecular variation between external and internal part of an archaeological sample TMT
5.9 Conclusions
GENERAL CONCLUSION