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DIFFERENT TYPES OF CRITICAL INCIDENTS
When a person is involved in an event that takes place in a specific manner, under particular circumstances and at a given point in time, various characteristics of the situation turn the event into an experience of powerlessness, disruption and discomfort. Characteristics of the event and its context, which include the severity of stress, are highly decisive factors in the process of coping with traumatic stress. Most critical incidents are unexpected and the onset of the event is virtually always sudden and not anticipated. Such experiences challenge a person’s ability to accurately assimilate and comprehend the experience; as such an event is capable of devastating even the most secured person or family (Kleber & Brom, 1992:40). The individual may experience a critical incident when he/she is alone, with others or in the context of a community. When a critical incident is experienced while alone, the individual may feel particularly helpless, terrorised, afraid, vulnerable and at the mercy of forces beyond his/her control. When the individual experiences the trauma within a group, the effect of the critical incident might well be different due to the group dynamics and psychological processes that take place. When a critical incident affects an entire community it can produce many secondary stressful experiences if the devastation and destruction is intense enough (Wilson, 1989:53). Critical incidents have an inherent structure. They may comprise a single or multiple stressors, be psychologically simple or complex, and be natural or man-made. Typical examples of natural critical incidents are the tsunami disaster which was responsible for the death of thousands of people in Indonesia in December of 2004. A typical example of a manmade incident is the September 11 attack in 2001 on the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon in the USA. Single traumatic incidents are common and typically involve an accident, which may result in an injury. Most traumatic experiences, however, contain multiple stressors. For example, hijacking typically involves dimensions such as a threat to life, loss of property and personal injury.
Reintegration phase
In the final recovery phase the person begins to live with the trauma as a memory that is not overwhelming and begins to re-engage with other people. In this phase the person’s trust in others starts to be rebuilt and he/she begins to relate emotionally to others in the same way as before the trauma. According to Schulz et al. (2000:4), the person begins to re-establish former patterns of adaptation to life. This process, according to Lewis (1996:17), starts months after the critical incident and can last for years. The process of recovery is not a linear process; it is likely to involve progress and setbacks. Movement can be backwards and forwards between these last two phases of recovery until a person eventually return to their previous level of functioning, as before the critical incident. Lewis (1996:59) mentions that during this phase the person should take responsibility for the rebuilding of his/her physical and emotional life. It is often a slow and difficult process and requires the support and understanding of others.
Chapter 1 General Introduction
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 PROBLEM FORMULATION
1.3 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.4 HYPOTHESIS/RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.5 RESEARCH APPROACH
1.6 TYPE OF RESEARCH
1.7 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
1.8 PILOT STUDY
1.9 RESEARCH POPULATION, BOUNDARY OF THE SAMPLE AND SAMPLING METHOD
1.10 ETHICAL ISSUES
1.11 DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS
1.12 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Chapter 2 Litrature Review Critical Incidents
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 DEFINING CRISIS, CRITICAL INCIDENT AND TRAUMA
2.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CRITICAL INCIDENTS
2.4 RISK FACTORS IN TRAUMATISATION AS A RESULT OF A CRITICAL INCIDENT
2.5 REACTIONS TO A CRITICAL INCIDENT
2.6 SHATTERING OF ASSUMPTIONS
2.7 FACTORS MEDIATING THE EXPERIENCE OF A CRITICAL INCIDENT
2.8 PHASES OF TRAUMA
2.9 NEURO-BIOLOGICAL REACTIONS TO A CRITICAL INCIDENT
2.10 SYMPTOMS AND DIAGNOSIS
2.11 EFFECT OF A CRITICAL INCIDENT ON FAMILY AND RELATIONSHIPS
2.12 CONCLUSION
Chapter 3 Critical Incident Stress Management
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 DEFINITION OF CRITICAL INCIDENT STRESS DEBRIEFING (CISD)
3.3 GOALS OF DEBRIEFING
3.4 EFFECTIVENESS OF DEBRIEFING
3.5 PRINCIPLES OF TRAUMA DEBRIEFING
3.6. TRAUMA DEFUSING
3.7 CONCLUSION
Chapter 4 Models in Critical Incident Stress Debriefing
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 MITCHELL’S DEBRIEFING PROCESS
4.3 BRIEF THERAPY
4.4 TRAUMA INCIDENT REDUCTION (TIR)
4.5 CONCLUSION
Chapter 5 Employee Assistance Programmes
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 WORK
5.3 INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN THE WORKPLACE
5.4 EAP AND EMPLOYEE WELL-BEING 131 5.4.1 Models in EAP
5.5 EFFECTIVE EAPs
5.6 EAP’S ROLE IN MANAGING CRITICAL INCIDENTS IN THE WORKPLACE
5.7 VALUE OF AN EAP
5.8 CONCLUSION
Chapter 6 Empirical Data on the Impact of a Critical Incident on the Psychosocial Functioning and the Work Performance of the Employee
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF INFORMATION
6.3 CONCLUSION 274
Chapter 7 Conclusions and Recommendations
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
