Sesotho popular expressions and Masculinity

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CHAPTER 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Introduction

The previous chapter worked on the literature review for the present study. This chapter deals with the theoretical framework which the present study employed. Masculinity and Psychoanalysis are the two merged theories to form psycho-masculinity theory in order to answer to the questions of the present study. Khotso and Mashinge (2011:109) indicate that where more than one theory cannot be used to understand the notion in question, the critic is allowed to merge theories. Therefore this part of the study includes masculinity and psychoanalysis theories. These theories are categorized. Category 3.1 comprises Masculinity and 3.3 provides aspects of Psychoanalysis theory.
To start with, Masculinity is a theory which attempts to help critics to understand manhood in societies in different contexts and activities: at work, in sports, music, in their positions, culture and many more. For Whitehead (2002:8), it is impossible to study men and masculinities without recognizing two factors: their relationship with women and the language that is used about men, by men themselves, the language used to hide other genders and other philosophies. He indicates that once the two factors above are understood, it will be easier to understand how many males believe in their innate superiority over women. Before the study takes its departure on Masculinity as an approach and its aspects, it is crucial to provide the origins of this theory. Connell and Messerschmidt (2005:836) affirm that masculinities are formations of practice that are complete in social action and differ according to gender relations in particular social setting.
Different scholars have attempted to provide the origin of Masculinity theory and its employment by scholars in different disciplines. Those scholars are many but to mention a few who the study will refer to are Whitehead (2002) and Connell in her many prominent contributions in masculinity studies since the 1980s. According to Whitehead (2002:14-17) the term “Masculinity” has achieved a commendable preference across cultures. He states that masculinity has been in use since the mid eighteenth century, originating from the Latin word masculinus (masculinity).He points out that the word ‘manly’ and manhood were always used on daily basis during the Victorian and Edwardian periods. Whitehead (ibid) states that on the influence of Charles Kingsley and Thomas Hughes during Victorian Edwardian eras, manhood was described as not having characteristics associated to those of women but manhood was characterized by physical strength, muscularity, physical trial and endurance in the face of extraordinary torture. In the ninetieth century, the idealized version of masculinity emerged encompassing physicality, virility, morality and civility. However, it was not clear as to what being a real man meant. Nevertheless, masculinity by that time was understood as something to be achieved and welcomed as an achievement of male maturity.
Whitehead (2002:15) states that it is right to review the history of masculinity in order to understand it presently. He indicates that masculinity, given the traditional attributes, is revealed as “historically variable and subject to change within and across social groupings”. Whitehead emphasizes the variability of masculinity by considering practices, imagery and symbols which can best represent manhood at the turn of the millennium. It is in this era that Whitehead points out that it is appropriate to talk of postmodern masculinities. He asserts that this term will allow scholars to scrutinize the influence of globalization upon ways of being a man while also highlighting the possibility of masculinities and differences between men of class, race, ethnicity and sexuality, (Whitehead 2002:17). Whitehead (ibid) emphasizes that masculinity has to be understood from a historical perspective to avoid making it appear to be constant and a solid entity. He goes on that despite the historical approaches to masculinity; the material actualities that surround gender differentials remain depressingly constant. Concepts such as power in terms of social and cultural pressure conform to gender-appropriate behaviour. The studies of masculinity were limited to the notion of power. In so doing they tended to draw other theories of the 1950’s, most notably Parsonian structural functionalism. It was the time when masculinity was seen as biologically given: “unassailable, singular, discrete and containing natural models of best practice”, Whitehead (2002:17). Whitehead argues that at the end of twentieth century such notions were increasingly unsound, not only in the Western societies but for the global media and research. Scholars are now interested in understanding the diversity of masculine representations worldwide. For Connell and Messerschmidt (2005), masculinity represents not a certain type of a man but rather, a way that men position themselves through conversational practices. Connell (2005:1) avers that masculinity approach helps critics to unravel about five things within one conceptual framework:

• Trace the history of the modern Western investigations of masculinity,
• Present a theory of masculinities, rooted in a social theory of gender,
• Depict the lives of men caught up in the process of change,
• Synthesize the history of Western masculinities and their political expressions,
• Propose strategies for the politics of gender equality.

Masculinity

According to Sage pub (2009:1), Masculinity theory is new in the field of gender studies. For Sage pub (ibid), Masculinity approach emerged out of seeming disconnect between what some feminist groups argued men experienced, and their actual experiences within coexistent societies. This approach advocates that if gender is constructed, then maleness is constructed. It further indicates that the portrayal and representations of maleness in literature says much and to study it is to gather a more complete idea of manhood.
According to Leach (1994:36-39), “…masculinity operates politically at different levels. At one level, for Leach, “it is a form of identity, a means of self-understanding that structures personal attitudes and behaviours.” Leach (ibid) argues that masculinity becomes a cultural ideology which defines the appropriate role that males must fulfil. One could say that according to Leach, masculinity is tailored to make males to fit in their societies.
For Wood (2007:89), Literary Masculinity helps the critic to understand masculinity. Wood (ibid) further says that masculinists are interested in male cultural stereotypical portrayal in their societies. Wood asserts that, masculinists want to change the cultural stereotypical view about males. They put the emphasis on the limitations of the traditional portrayal of males in language. Below are the bullets that show how this theory can be employed as according to Leach (1994:36-39)

• show interest in the descriptions of male characters;
• view cultural prescriptions for gender toxic;
• analyse gender identity socially, historically and politically;
• engage in the cultural interpretation of maleness, learnt through participation in society and its institutions;
• examine masculinity as an ever evolving process that requires the individual to be intimately linked to social and cultural discourses;
• scrutinize males as expected to identify with social institutions that construct masculinity and react in a manner that is commensurate with these institutions view of acceptable behaviour;
• intend to change the cultural stereotypical portrayal view about male characters;
• investigate masculinity bearing in mind that this concept is created for the individual as a set of rules that define the individual;
• Individuals that identify themselves with masculine mindset are viewed as more aggressive, assertive and “better able to get the job done,” Leach (1994:38);
• put emphasis on the limitations of the traditional portrayal of males in language and behaviour; and
• allows for the individual to look at socially accepted gender rules and apply these rules in a meaningful manner for individuals with a strong sense of identity; and
• Enables the individual to develop a unique perspective on masculinity.

Masculinity approach

Literary Masculinity is employed as a basis for the present study. As Leach (1994:36-39) and Wood (2007:89) assert, masculinists suggest many different ways that can be followed in the application of this theory. However, the present study adheres to seven aspects of Masculinity approach. The part below shows the aspects of Masculinity approach that are applied in this study to analyse Basotho accordion music lyrics:
Exhibit interest in male characters stereotypical portrayal in their societies;

• Make, cultural interpretation of maleness, learnt through participation in Basotho society and its institutions,
• Scrutinize, individual characters to be intimately linked to social and cultural discourses,
• Put emphasis on the limitations of the traditional portrayal of males in language and behaviour, analyse masculine identity socially, historically and politically,
• Scrutinize males as expected to identify with social institutions that construct masculinity and react in a manner that is commensurate with these institutions view of acceptable behaviour, and
• Investigate masculinity bearing in mind that this concept is created for the individual as a set of rules that defines the individual,
• Helps to understand how a system of oppression is reproduced by studying up those in the dominant group,
• Understand its contradictions and weaknesses
  Significant elements of Connell’s theory of Masculinity
  Connell has developed significant elements of masculinity theory. Ignoring them in this study would leave a gap in the understanding of masculinities. Therefore those aspects are in cooperated to enable the scholar to respond to masculine questions. Those aspects are labour, power cathexis or sexuality masculinity and symbolism. The following section provides cathexis as one aspect of masculinity theory. Labour and power are covered within the Marxist psychoanalysis theory later in the same chapter.

CHAPTER 1 
1.1 BACKGROUND
1.2 Statement of the problem
1.3 Aim of the study
1.4 Justification/ significance of research
1.5 Definition of terms
1.6 Scope of the study
1.7 Ethical Considerations
1.8 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2 
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Masculinity
2.2 Development of Basotho accordion music and the way it differs from other types of music in Sesotho
2.3 Sesotho culture and masculinity
2.4 Basotho games and dance
2.5 Basotho accordion music and their depiction of women
2.6 Sesotho Proverbs
2.7 Sesotho popular expressions and Masculinity
2.8 Sesotho language and Masculinity
2.9 Gender and Masculinity
2.10 Nicknames and Masculinity
2.11 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Masculinity
3.2 Masculinity approach
3.3 Significant elements of Connell’s theory of Masculinity
3.4 Theories budding around Masculinity theory
3.5 Psychoanalysis Theory
3.6 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Research design
4.2 Cross-sectional design
4.3 Data gathering
4.4 Research tools
4.5 Interviews
4.6 Analysis and Data Interpretation
4.9 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5 
DATA PRESENTATION
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Basotho male-oriented games
5.2 Passage rites
5.3 Masculine language and culture
5.4Masculine expressions
5.6 Male-oriented idioms and proverbs
5.6 Basotho folklore
5.7 Basotho folktales
5.8 The Marashea (Malofa/ Litšepe)
5.9 Hostile environment
5.10 Eulogies
5.12Borrowing
5.13 Negative portrayal of women
5.14 Negative portrayalof competitors
5.15 Metaphors
5.16 Metaphors on domestic animals
5.17Metaphors on birds
5.18 Metaphors on reptiles
5.19 Metaphors on natural phenomenon
5.20 Metaphors on weapons
5.21Miscellaneous metaphors
5.22 Medicinal plants
5.23 Human body parts
5.24 Profligacy
5.25 Dislocation
5.26 Ruthless retribution
5.27 Retaliating expressions
5.28 Masculine roles
5.29 Mangoaela’s influence
5.30 Letsema Matšela’s influence
5.31 Historical-political influence
5.33 Biblical influence
5.32 Nicknames
5.34 Acquisition
5.35 Comparison of artists’ choice of themes that relate to masculinity
5.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 6 
ANALYSIS AND DATA DISCUSSION
6.1 Analysis and discussion
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Summary
7.2 Recommendations
References
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MASCULINITY AS A POPULAR THEME IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF BASOTHO ACCORDION MUSIC