SEXUAL ABUSE AND THE IMPACT ON THE CHILD IN THE MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

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DEVELOPMENTAL FACTORS WHEN WORKING WITH MIDDLE CHILDHOOD CHILDREN IN THE FIELD OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE

INTRODUCTION

In the course of development, children change physically, emotionally and cognitively as they progress through different stages. From the researcher’s point of view, child development is a progression through generally accepted milestones. In order to determine a child’s ability to supply information about events which they have witnessed or experienced, it is necessary to know what the developmental milestones are, and to understand the general characteristics of each age period.
This chapter will provide an overview of the following areas of development of the child: physical, cognitive, memory, language, socio-emotional, moral and sexual. Emphasis will also be placed on memory, repression and dissociation. Due to the fact that many children are referred for forensic assessment due to sexual reactive behaviour, the researcher will also address normal and abnormal sexual behaviour.

PHASES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Development refers to the change over time in body and in behaviour due to both biology and experience (Craig & Baucum, 2002:4). It is further described by (Schoeman, 2006:74) as the pattern of change that human beings undergo during their lifetime; beginning at conception and continuing through the life cycle until the person’s death. For the purpose of organisation and understanding, development is frequently described in terms of phases (Berk, 2003:5; Smith, Dockrell & Tomlinson, 1998:202). The development of children is divided in four phases namely: the toddler phase (birth to 2 years), early childhood (2 to 6 years), middle childhood (6 to 11/12 years) and adolescence (12 to 18 years) (Berk, 2003:5; Cole Cole, 2001:468; Louw, Van Ede & Ferns, 1998:321). Each of these phases is described in terms of physical, cognitive, socio-emotional and moral development (Newman & Newman, 2003:254).
In order to work with children, all professionals should have a comprehensive working knowledge and clear understanding of the phases and issues of the child’s development in a number of areas. This research will focus on the allegedly sexually abused child in the middle childhood and therefore it is imperative that middle childhood should be defined.

THE MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

The period from approximately 6 to 12 years of life is generally known as middle childhood (Louw et al., 1998:321; Cole & Cole, 2001:468; Newman & Newman, 2003:254) and the onset thereof is recognised in cultures around the world.
The period between 6/7 and 11 years is referred to by Berger (2003:299) as the « school years » where children are mastering new concepts, new vocabulary and new skills. According to Piaget (Shaffer, 1996:266), the ages 6 to 7 is “precisely the time when children are decentring from perceptual illusions while in the process of acquiring the cognitive operations that will enable them, among other things, to classify animals, people, objects and events, and to understand the relations between upper and lower case letters ».
In South Africa, school attendance is compulsory and according to Section 3(1) of the South African Schools Act, 1996 (Act No. 84 of 1996), a learner must attend school from the first day of the year in which he/she reaches the age of 7 years until the last school day of the year in which he/she reaches the age of 15 years, or the Grade 9, whichever occurs first. However, according to the South African Schools Act, 1996 (Act No. 84 of 1996) parents may enrol their child if the child turns 6 before June of the school year. The primary school system accommodates the middle childhood child in three phases, namely the foundation phase (Grades 1 – 3: age 6 to 9/10); intermediate phase (Grades 4 – 6: age 9/10 to 12); senior phase (Grade 7: age 12/13) (The South African Schools Act, 1996). This study focuses on children in the middle childhood, involving children who may be in Grade 1 to Grade 7.
The researcher experienced that when a child enters Grade 1, new expectations arise regarding the child’s behaviour (Berger, 2003:299) as they spend less time under the parents’ supervision. More emphasis is placed on responsibilities and tasks away from home, e.g. attending formal school, homework and participating in extra-mural activities. In South Africa many children stay at after school facilities and use public transport to travel to and from their homes. Often both parents work and therefore many children are left with older siblings who must take care of them. From the researcher’s working experience with victims of sexual abuse, it became evident that these children spend less time under direct supervision from parents, which may result in the child falling at risk for possible sexual abuse

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF MOTOR SKILLS

As children move out of the home to be introduced to the outer world on their own, they need more motor skills. Genetic contribution to size can be seen in the height and rate of growth typical of different populations and families (Louw et al., 1998:321).

General physical development

Like all aspects of development, children’s growth depends on the interaction of environmental (Craig & Baucum, 2002:318) and genetic factors (Berger, 2003:309). Inherited differences may influence children’s ability in sports activities and many other physical activities (Berger, 2003:309) and it may occur that a child will not necessarily perform on the same level as children who inherited advanced motor skills from their parents. Environmental factors that moderate growth potential are nutrition and health (Cole & Cole, 2001:472).
Size and strength increase significantly in the years from age 6 to 12, but slower than during early childhood (Newman & Newman, 2003:255). Outstanding characteristics of the physical development during middle childhood are, according to Louw et al. (1998:323), the rapid growth of the arms and legs in comparison with the body, and a slower growth rate in comparison with the earlier pre-school period. The average annual growth in the middle childhood is approximately 6 cm in height and 2 kg in weight (Cole & Cole, 2001:473), and height increased from approximately 120 cm at age 6 to 150 cm at age 12. Weight increased from 20 kg to 40 kg in this same period (Newman & Newman, 2003:255; Louw et al., 1998:323).
The most common problem during this stage is children who are overweight or obese, affecting them physically and emotionally (Berger, 2003:302). The researcher found that many victims of sexual abuse are overweight due to overeating (Craig & Baucum, 2002:321). In practice the researcher experienced that girls of 11 years look more mature and older for their age in comparison with boys of the same age. For this reason interviewers must be careful during formal interviews not to have higher expectations from girls, but to keep to guidelines for the specific age group.
As discussed, children in the middle childhood have to cope with a body that is getting bigger, taller and stronger and the growth thereof may look out of proportion. Other physical changes according to Louw et al. (1998:323) include the following:

• Milk teeth are replaced by permanent teeth.
• The circulatory system develops at a slower rate.
• The brain reaches 90% of its adult size (Craig & Baucum, 2002:318).
• The respiratory system functions more economically.

From experience with child victims of sexual abuse, the researcher found that children in the middle childhood, who are sexually abused, may think that their bodies are damaged (Finkelhor & Brown, 1985:530; Wieland, 1997:15). They may also blame the sexual abuse for physical changes or delayed growth. The researcher found that a female victim would for example blame the sexual abuse if her breasts are developing quicker than her friend’s, or if she has not started with her menstrual period at the same time as her peers did. The forensic interviewer needs to be sensitive regarding these aspects, as it is vital to be reminded that the child sitting in front of the professional is challenged with a lot of physical changes, which are not necessarily experienced in the same way as non-victims. If questions regarding physical development arise during the interview, the interviewer needs to normalise it in a neutral way.

Motor skills

Children of school age become better at performing controlled, purposeful movements (Woolfolk, 2001:90) and their newly acquired physical abilities are reflected in their interest in sports and other adventurous stunts

Gross motor skills

It is highlighted by Cole and Cole (2001:499) that compared to girls, boys are superior in many motor skills during middle childhood. Muscles become stronger and therefore the average 10-year-old boy would throw a ball twice as far as the average 6-year-old boy (Berger, 2003:301) and can run faster and exercise longer. Although girls make similar progress in throwing and catching, at each age their throwing distance is on average shorter than that of boys (Craig & Baucum, 2002:319; Newman & Newman, 2003:254).
During interviews with children in the middle childhood, the researcher has experienced that children like to run, jump, skip, cycle, skate, swim, kick a ball, do ballet and participate in a variety of other sports (Cole & Cole, 2001:498). Talking about these activities is a good contact point to facilitate discussion and assessing their ability to communicate. It is the researcher’s experience that due to increased exposure to television, Playstation and television games, modern children are less mobile and consequently their motor skills are limited.

CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH PROCESS AND ORIENTATION OF RESEARCH STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 PROBLEM FORMULATION
1.3 PURPOSE, GOAL AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH STUDY
1.3.1 The purpose of the research study
1.3.2 Goal of the study
1.3.3 Objectives of the study
1.4 HYPOTHESIS FOR THE STUDY
1.5 RESEARCH APPROACH
1.6 TYPE OF RESEARCH
1.7 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
1.7.1 Phase one: Problem analysis and project planning
1.7.1.1 Identifying and involving clients through various processes
1.7.1.2 Gaining entry into and co-operation from all relevant stakeholders
1.7.1.3 Identifying concerns of the population
1.7.1.4 Analysing concerns and problems identified
1.7.1.5 Analysing the broad areas of concern to guide the development of data collection instruments
1.7.1.6 Setting goals and objectives
1.7.2 Phase two: Information gathering and synthesis
1.7.2.1 Utilising existing resources of information .
1.7.2.2 Study of natural examples
1.7.3 Phase three: Design of the protocol
1.7.4 Phase four: Early development and pilot testing
1.7.4.1 Developing a prototype or preliminary intervention
1.7.4.2 Conducting a pilot study of protocol and checklist
1.7.4.3 Applying design criteria
1.7.5 Phase five: Evaluation and advanced development
1.7.5.1 Collecting and analysing data
1.7.5.2 Refining the intervention
1.7.6 Phase six: Dissemination
1.8 DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH POPULATION, DELINEATION OF THE SAMPLE AND SAMPLING METHOD
1.8.1 Universum
1.8.2 Population
1.8.3 Delineation of the sample
1.8.4 Sampling method
1.8.4.1 Participants for the experimental group
1.8.4.2 Participants for the comparison group
1.9 ETHICAL ISSUES
1.9.1 The right to experimenter responsibility
1.9.2 Informed consent
1.9.3 The right to privacy / anonymity / confidentiality
1.9.4 Actions and competence of the researcher
1.9.5 The right to equivalence
1.9.6 Release and publication of the findings
1.9.7 Recovery of respondents.
1.10 DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS
1.10.1 Child sexual abuse
1.10.2 Forensic interviewing
1.10.3 Disclosure
1.10.4 Interview protocol
1.11 PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED DURING THE STUDY
1.12 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
1.13 CONTENTS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
CHAPTER 2: SEXUAL ABUSE AND THE IMPACT ON THE CHILD IN THE MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 DEFINING A CHILD
2.3 CONSTITUTIONAL PROTECTION
2.4 CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE
2.5 LEGAL DEFINITIONS
2.6 REPORTING OF CRIMES AGAINST CHILDREN
2.7 INCIDENCE AND PREVALENCE OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE
2.8 DYNAMICS IN THE FIELD OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE
2.9 INDICATORS OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE
2.10 SEX OFFENDERS AGAINST CHILDREN
2.11 IMPACT OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE
2.12 TREATMENT OF SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN
2.13 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3: DEVELOPMENTAL FACTORS WHEN WORKING WITH MIDDLE CHILDHOOD CHILDREN IN THE FIELD OF SEXUAL ABUSE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 PHASES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
3.3 THE MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
3.4 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF MOTOR SKILLS
3.5 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
3.6 MEMORY
3.7 ASKING A CHILD TO DRAW
3.8 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
3.9 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
3.10 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
3.11 SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
3.12 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4: FACILITATION OF DISCLOSURE AND INTERVIEWING VICTIMS OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF INTERVIEWS
4.3 THE ROLE OF THE SOCIAL WORKER IN THE LEGAL SYSTEM
4.4 THE INTERVIEWER
4.5 THE INTERVIEW SETTING
4.6 INTERVIEW STRATEGIES
4.7 THE INTERVIEWING PROCESS
4.8 STRUCTURED INTERVIEW PROTOCOLS
4.9 DEALING WITH DIFFICULT ISSUES
4.10 CLASSIFICATION OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE ALLEGATIONS
4.11 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5: A FORENSIC INTERVIEW PROTOCOL FOR SOCIAL WORKERS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEVEN-PHASE FORENSIC INTERVIEW PROTOCOL AND SELF-DEVELOPED CHECKLIST
5.3 UTILISING PLAY RELATED COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES TO FACILITATE THE INITIAL VERBAL DISCLOSURE
5.4 SEVEN-PHASE FORENSIC INTERVIEW
5.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6: THE EMPIRICAL PROCESS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 RESEARCH PROCESS
6.3 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: SECTION OF THE EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
6.4 DATA ANALYSIS: CLUSTERS
6.5 DATA ANALYSIS: PHASES
6.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7: SUMMARISED CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 EVALUATION OF THE PURPOSE, GOAL AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
7.3 TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS
7.4 CONCLUSIONS
7.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
7.6 CONCLUDING REMARK
REFERENCES
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