STUDENT MIGRATION FROM AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

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CHAPTER 3 AFRICA’S PERCEPTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND STUDENT MIGRATION

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the researcher will further attempt to give answers to the questions stated in Chapter 1 by means of a study of relevant literature. The research first aims to establish the general factors that contribute to the migration of students to so-called „foreign‟ universities. This general outlook is a continuation of Chapter 2, but will be drawing examples on the effect of student migration, specifically in Africa. The research also is an effort to ascertain why Zimbabwean students are drawn to South African higher education institutions. These efforts are done with the aim of analysing the effects of the migration on the education system and the provision of higher education in Zimbabwe, in order that recommendations may be made for future policy guidelines for the development of the higher education of the country in relation to student migration.
In order to come up with possible answers, this chapter presents the characteristics of higher education and student migration in Africa. It also links Africa‟s and Zimbabwe‟s experience in respect of the international arena, discussed in Chapter 2. It is essential to give the background of higher education in Africa in order to understand Zimbabwe‟s situation. While various researchers have written widely on student migration, most of them merely discussed trends in international student mobility in and out of Africa from challenges to „pushes‟ and „pulls‟. Information on Zimbabwean student migration, especially to South Africa, is very limited. However, the existing literature on the subject indicates that student migration does exist between the two countries, and that it may be possible that not much attention has been paid to it.
The marginalisation of Africa, which finds an explanation in the World Systems
Theory, will also be discussed. The current research relates to Kishun‟s (2007(b):457) observation namely that African institutions of higher learning see internationalisation as central to the development of the continent. On the other hand, Africa‟s dilemma is described as double-edged. The first setback is that of Africa‟s crippling past legacies. Another obstacle includes the policies of international development agencies such as the World Bank that seriously neglected African universities. The Bank even suggested at one point that the continent had no need for universities. Africa now faces new challenges posed by a globalising world (Botha, 2010:8; Kishun, 2007:457 & Moja, 2006:456).
The discussion in this chapter attempts to identify how Zimbabwe, as an African country, is disadvantaged in its higher education. The discussion will also attempt to expose other challenges that are faced in higher education of the country.
The reflection on Africa is an attempt to come up with an understanding of the Continent when compared to other world regions, restricting the discussion to student mobility. The view is based on the perception that Zimbabwe has gone through what other countries in Africa have experienced with regard to student mobility. However, there is the possibility that trends in the mobility process may not be the same in all the regions of Africa. Zimbabwe‟s experience of student mobility is closely related to that of the countries in the Southern African Development Community (SADC).
This chapter thus attempts an analysis of Africa‟s higher education and the place of Zimbabwe‟s student mobility in the SADC region. Zimbabwean students mainly migrate into South Africa for higher education. The attempt is expected to lead to the establishment of the effects of student migration to South African universities on Zimbabwe‟s higher education.

ORGANIZATION OF THE CHAPTER

This chapter discusses higher education and student migration in four major sections namely Africa in general, the SADC region, South Africa and Zimbabwe. The historical background of both higher education and student mobility are found under these sub-divisions (cf. 3.3). The section on Africa is a general presentation of the origins of higher education and student migration on the continent. It shows the conception of institutions of higher learning (cf. 3.3.1) and how Africa is side-lined by the international world in matters of university education (cf. 3.4.2). The side-lining gives the impression that foreign higher education is more relevant to African students. Trends in student mobility on the continent (cf. 3.5), Africa‟s heritage from colonialism (cf. 3.6), the challenges (cf. 3.6.2), and the general „drivers‟ into mobility (cf. 3.6.3) are examined. This is done in order to understand Africa‟s higher education.
A discussion on SADC attempts a consideration of student mobility and higher learning in this region (cf. 3.7). This research is on Zimbabwean students moving to South Africa, and thus, attempts to illustrate the place of both South Africa and Zimbabwe as members of SADC. By means of the illustration, it is hoped to help understand the effect of student migration of Zimbabwean students to South Africa.
Of all the countries in the SADC region, Zimbabwean students in particular, single out South Africa as a study destination. This is evident from South Africa‟s „SADC Headcount Enrolments by Nationality‟ in Internationalisation (2004:8), which says that Zimbabwean students make out the largest percentage of international students in South Africa. Thus, it becomes important to consider higher education in South Africa (cf. 3.10) and then discuss the future of student mobility in the SADC region and the importance of South Africa in its capacity as a member of the region SADC (cf. 3.11).
The chapter ends with a discussion on Zimbabwe (cf. 3.12), beginning with the governance of education in the country (cf. 3.12.1). The review on the difference between the colonial and after-independence provision of higher education (cf. 3.12.2) leads to the reasons for the rise of student migration in the country (cf. 3.12.5). The chapter also discusses the trends in student migration in Zimbabwe (cf. 3.13) and goes on to discuss the reasons for the „push‟ and „pull‟ to South Africa, from the Zimbabwean perspective (cf. 3.13.4). The discussions include aspects of Zimbabwean students at South African universities (cf. 3.14), myths related to studying in South Africa (cf. 3.15), and the effects of student migration on individuals 133
and on higher education in Zimbabwe (cf. 3.16). The government‟s efforts in respect of higher education development (cf. 3.17) are also reviewed before discussing the future of student migration in Zimbabwe (cf. 3.18). The concluding remarks (cf. 3.19) come up with suggestions from the literature on what could be done if student migration is to make a positive difference in the country.

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND STUDENT MOBILITY IN AFRICA

This section is on the background of higher education and student migration in Africa. It shows the part played by colonialism in eliminating the original form of higher learning on the continent and the replacement of this higher learning with the type of education that suits the interests of the new ruler, the colonialist. The section also explains the response of the Africans to the new type of higher education, and the new influence in the field of education on the continent. The purpose for the explanation is to attempt to unearth the roots of the migration of Zimbabwean students to the higher education institutions in South Africa. This is done as an attempt to establish the effects of this migration on higher education of the country. It is also hoped that the findings may help policy-makers in the planning for both student migration and higher education in the country.

Background to higher education and student mobility in Africa

Research by Teferra and Knight (2008:44-45), Mohamedbhai (2008:2), and Keteku (2007:1) indicates that higher education in Africa existed long before colonization. The first forms of „universities‟ are said to have been found in North Africa in Timbuktu, Ethiopia, and Egypt. These „universities‟ encouraged the search for knowledge. The research also indicates that student mobility started in Egypt in the form of students travelling to centres of higher learning, such as Al-Azhar and Per-Ankh, around 2000 BC. Assié-Lumumba (2006:26) says that Per-Ankh is the ancient Egyptian name for „schools‟ and „libraries‟ where scribes prepared their hieroglyphic texts. These institutions served to keep alive the memory of society and the accumulated knowledge of generations of scholars. An undated publication entitled Per-Ankh: The Publishing Cooperative says that today the Per-Ankh aims at the same ancestral principle of collaborative research through a publishing institute. The Per-Ankh seeks to unify values developed over a long time in history of the African people to incorporate these values in well-made works of art and scholarship. The art and the scholarship work are publicized over the continent and throughout the world so as to share the knowledge of Africa‟s traditional higher learning (Assié-Lumumba, 2006:26).
The above information implies that the fact that the work preserved in the Per-Ankh is not only for Africa but for the whole world attests the idea of the university. The first forms of the internationalizing of higher learning on the continent took place before the colonial scramble for Africa started. The travelling of students to centres of higher learning for the sake of knowledge implies the origins of student migration on the continent, the practice which still exists to date. However, the colonization of Africa changed the form of higher learning and the purpose of student migration (Ninnes & Hellstén, 2005:199-200). What is termed as „student migration‟ today is an age-old activity which resulted from the search of knowledge. The relationship between international student migration and that of Africa is change. However, that change differs in that while current international and regional student migration changed for positive growth in higher education, Africa‟s form of migration for studies was eliminated before its effect were clearly witnessed. (Ninnes & Hellstén, 2005:199-200).
The above observation is supported by Lulat‟s (2005:3) view, namely that
…long before the arrival of European colonialism, those parts of Africa that possessed institutions of higher learning could boast of a tradition of higher education that included the belief that the education pursuit of knowledge for its own sake was a worthy endeavour that any society would want to encourage. … following the arrival of colonialism, this approach to higher education (and student migration) jettisoned in favour of an exclusively utilitarian view of higher learning.
The above information implies that the current recorded history of higher learning in Africa was written by the colonial rulers and not by the Africans themselves. The original African history seems to have been completely ignored (Lulat, 2005:3), thus giving prominence to the ideas of colonial powers which later turned into student mobility for higher education.
Chapter 2 (2.4.4.10(c)) of this research reminds us that the former colonial powers still wish to actualize their past policies. The discussion gives the example of Britain, the former colonial ruler of Bangladesh, and states that Bangladesh‟s higher education organization follows the former British mode (Abidi, 2012:4). Africa‟s higher education is similar to Bangladesh‟s experience. Assié-Lumumba (2006:25) clarifies the above observation by saying that the very nature of education as a social institution that plays a major role in the process of institutions rooted in the tradition and history of former colonial powers whose control is perpetual, and whose search for a permanent presence is actualised. The above view is shared by Basset and Maldonado-Maldonado (2009:156), who indicate that, historically, the colonial powers served as international gateways to the colonial entities that include higher education. The researchers base their argument on the observation that almost all the „universities‟ started serve as overseas extensions of European metropolitan institutions. To date (2014) sometimes, what African students believe as „proper‟ education is the western form. The colonial influence thus remains felt, and controls the continent. This may be the reason why migration for education is the first option to studying in the home country. This attitude is evident among most of the Zimbabwean students.
Consequently, Africa‟s efforts in respect of higher education and student migration are annulled. What remains glaring, as Lulat (2005:1-2) explains, is the record of mere seventy to eighty years of an information from colonial rule for much of Africa‟s higher learning. Lulat (2005:1-2) continues to say that the content does not embody the higher education and student migration‟s real meaning for a continent that spans millennia. The study suggests that Africa‟s higher education has always been underrated, an attitude which still affects the continent‟s knowledge acquisition to this day. Perhaps that is why African students prefer foreign higher education.
The origins of higher education in Africa differ very much from those of the rest of the world. The given example by Assié-Lumumba (2006:26-32) is that of the development of higher education centres in Medieval Europe, which developed from the leadership of Catholic religious institutions. Later the embryonic group of the bourgeoisie, (according to Assié-Lumumba, 2006:26-32) understood the relationship between education and economic systems, especially an education that would help produce the much needed human resources, to meet the growing economic needs. Yet, African higher education is different from that of the western world because it did not get a chance to spread in North Africa from where it had started because of brutal disruptive developments, such as slave trade. The colonial powers did not acknowledge Africa‟s form of education. Instead, they introduced their own ways of higher learning which left an imprint on the higher education of the continent. The destroying of the African way of higher learning is the initial reason for the rejection of European education in Africa, as it implied submission to the enslaving powers (Assié-Lumumba, 2006:26-32).
Based from the above information is the opinion that the Western higher education system proceeded unabated, Africa‟s was obliterated, and no form of it was ever taught again. With the movement of time, whatever was introduced as higher education in Africa was concurrently undermined with educational policies, such as those imposed by the World Bank (WB) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), resulting in the obligations of maintaining the colonial suppression on the continent. Thus, the subjugation of Africa that began with the slave trade continued with polices that were ill-suited to the demands of escaping the limitation of an externally-defined economic notion for Africa. Higher education and student migration liberated the international world, but Africa remained restrained because of the Western powers‟ desire of the control of the African region (Lulat, 2005:1-2).

Conclusion

Just as was observed in 2.3.1, higher education and student migration in Africa have a traceable history. However, what exists today as higher education in Africa is not very close to its original form on the continent. Higher education has undergone transformation more than once, first as a result of the colonization of the continent, and then the changes resulting from experiences after the countries gained political independence. The two stages have resulted in the diverse reasons for student migration for higher education. During the colonial era the students, among other motives, migrated for the purpose of acquiring knowledge. After the countries had gained independence, student migration seems to have been influenced by events and experiences on the continent.
The following section discusses higher education and student migration in the early post-colonial era.

THE EARLY POST-COLONIAL ERA

A look at the early years of African countries‟ independence endeavours to show how the nations strove to make higher education more meaningful and relevant to the needs of the continent. The glimpse shows how comparable the African experiences and responses to higher education are, despite attaining their independence at various times in history.

The conception of higher education institutions in the early post-colonial era

During the colonial era education in Africa emerged as the initiative of different churches. Examples of the early educational establishments, including higher education institutions, are the Gordon Memorial College, between 1899 and 1902 and opened on November 8, 1902, the Makerere University founded in 1922 and becoming a university in 1949, the Yaba Higher College, in Lagos in Nigeria, founded in 1932 and becoming a university in 1929, and the Prince of Wales, which is now Achimota School in Ghana and founded in 1924. These establishments succeeded because of their achievement combined with the realisation by the Africans themselves that education would be used to their advantage (Afoláyan, 2007: 41-44; Assié-Lumumba, 2006:32-33).
The above information is similar to what is said about the origins of higher education in Africa namely that the northern half of the continent seems to have been ahead of the southern parts of the continent in terms of the establishment of higher education. For this reason, the northern and the central parts of the continent have been destinations for higher education migration in Africa because the north more institutions of higher learning. The information on churches‟ involvement in education, including higher education, links to how to date in some African countries the churches are involved in higher education through the opening-up of new universities. Zimbabwe, for example, has church-established academies such as the Catholic, Africa, Solusi, Zimbabwe Ezekiel Guti and the Reformed Church universities (Religion in Zimbabwe-Universities, 2010).
Immediately after the colonial era, higher education in Africa was viewed and conceived as a critical component in the nation-building project on the continent and for the developing of countries. Manuh (2005:250) indicates that university education, in particular, has been presumed to offer the means for communities to rise out of poverty through its application to solving problems in production, living conditions, technology, and the general know-how. Africa is a poor continent and individuals long to extricate themselves from this poverty through education. This is why higher education is of great importance and also is the major drive behind student migration.
In most poor and economically unstable countries, including Zimbabwe, the standard of higher education is going down. For example, the 2013 Top 100 Universities and Colleges in Africa, as presented at www.4icu.org, had the University of Zimbabwe at position 70 in 2013, a huge drop from place 37 in 2012. Yet, even in its low position, Zimbabwe‟s higher education has provided the means for social and professional mobility, including student mobility, for the purpose of work and study. The negative impact of the student mobility, especially in Zimbabwe, calls for the government and higher education institutions to slow down the flow of students to other countries and transform it into sustainable institutions for higher education. The slowing down migration for higher education can be possible through the provision of competitive remuneration packages for university lectures, properly maintained research facilities and adequate research funding levels (Kotecha, 2010:53). Thus, acknowledging the existence of student mobility would help in the planning for dealing with it so that it benefits the country if students were to come back and work in the country.

The marginalization of the African continent

Earlier in this chapter (3.3.1), it was pointed out that Africa had a higher education system in place before it was colonised. That education system, according to Lulat (2005:1-3), was not only disrupted but also negated. In relation to this information on the disruption of higher education, the current ranking of universities shows no African university in the top 200 universities in the world. Such low ranking of Africa‟s universities can be associated with what Kotecha (2012(c):15) asserted that international academic mobility collaborations and cross-border provision remain decidedly unequal between developed and developing countries. Just as the type of higher education established in Africa was a conscious deliberation, so is the conscious decision that leads to the unequal provisions and decisions in higher education. Conscious deliberations on the provision of higher education that were made by colonialists find explanation in the Neo-liberal Theory which says decisions are a creation of people and that there is always someone in control of the major resolutions (2.7.5). According to Maringe and Foskett (2010:21), in education such decisions vested in large international corporate organisations. Maringe and Foskett (2010:21) indicate that there is always someone influencing major resolutions. The world university web ranking is created by people who are in positions to make decisions. Some of the decisions made in regards to higher education for example, may not always be in favour of those whom they are made for.
The position of Africa‟s universities in both the world and the continent rankings influences student mobility in Africa. The positions of institutions determine students‟ choice for a destination for study. The African universities are low in the list in the order of classification and there is a possibility that students consider them last should they intend to migrate (Hazelkorn, 2011:126-128).
Research by Chessa (2012:78) and Kotecha (2012(c):15) suggests that internationalisation has reinforced historic inequalities in higher education in the colonial and post-colonial movement of students, namely from the south to the north. The research shows that since individual countries are positioned differently in the global economy, internationalisation and its implications to them would vary. Because of internationalisation, there is diversity in the provisions of higher education. Students from Africa usually travel to seek higher education in countries with better economies than theirs. While South Africa is emerging as a popular destination especially with students from most of Southern African countries, some of the students migrate to the U.S.A., the U.K. and Australia if they can afford it. To some extent the influence of the former colonial rule contributes to the students‟ choice of a study destination (Kotecha, 2012(c):15).
Developed countries have more institutions of higher learning and developed infrastructure than developing countries. Development enables these countries even to offer more study programmes at universities than developing countries do. Advanced development and sufficiently equipped universities in the U.S.A., the U.K. and Australia are the reason why most African students attempt to migrate to those countries for higher education. The limited number of quality universities in Africa is unable to satisfy the students‟ demand. (Chessa, 2012:78; Kotecha, 2012(c):1).
Research by Maringe and Foskett (2010:21) and Kotecha (2012(c):15) says that internationalisation has also given English, followed by a few other European languages, global supremacy as the language of instruction and scholarship. While a large number of institutions of African institutions of higher learning deliver their programmes in English, there are limitations such as the courses delivered which influence the students‟ choices of were to study. The limitation in what to study contributes to the reason why Africa loses the best and the brightest students to developed countries. There are no African languages developed enough to boost higher education attractively enough on the continent. The local languages are offered as a programme at some universities, but they are very unpopular with students because the languages limit them in terms of employment after graduation. Since the languages only apply to particular countries, there is no space for expansion in the use of the African languages at international level and there is very little that the languages offer in terms of development. English, as the language of instruction, makes African students dependent on Western higher education.
There has been massification of education which has affected some countries in Africa. In addition to massification in education, the choices African countries make in terms of funding national programmes limit higher education. Demand for both quantity and quality in higher education continues to grow. The continent‟s economic position specifically continues to impede the continent‟s capacity to develop its higher education. Higher learning in Africa, in the same way as student mobility is influenced by how globalization and internationalization, is also affected by the choices the continent makes in an attempt to solve challenges in universities. The result of some choices is student migration (Mohamedbhai, 2008:4-5).

Conclusion

The establishment of higher education in the northern half of Africa became fully accepted after the local people realised the advantages of education. Students from the southern parts of the continent, having realised the importance of education, migrated to the north of the continent where higher education was more advanced than in the south. However, the state of Africa‟s higher education in many African countries still remains under the influence of the former colonisers. Africa‟s higher education, nevertheless, remains at the bottom in the grading of world universities. This could be why student migration on the continent has followed particular movements with students searching for meaningful and rewarding higher education.
The following section discusses trends in student migration in Africa.

TRENDS IN STUDENT MIGRATION IN AFRICA

In this section the researcher attempts to give a definition of the international student in Africa. The general view of the trends in student mobility will also be explicated. What was left behind after the colonial era is reviewed for the purpose of indicating in what way colonialism still affects higher education on the continent. It is important to first look at the effect of migration on Africa in general in order to understand mobility in specific countries. The focus is on Zimbabwe, a country which is also bound to be influenced by the events on the continent.

CONTENTS
Page
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Key Concepts
List of Abbreviations
CONTENTS
List of Figures
List of Tables
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.3 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
1.4 AIMS OF THE STUDY
1.5 METHODS OF THE RESEARCH
1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
1.7 FURTHER STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY
1.8 DEFINITION OF THE KEY CONCEPTS
1.9 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW: STUDENT MIGRATION FROM AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 ORGANIZATION OF THE CHAPTER
2.3 THE BACKGROUND TO STUDENT MIGRATION
2.4 THE CONTEXT OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENT MIGRATION
2.5 THE IMPACT OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENT MOBILITY
2.6 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS IN INTERNATIONAL STUDENT MIGRATION
2.7 THE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
2.8 MYTHS RELATED TO STUDENT MIGRATION
2.9 HOW THE GOVERNMENTS MOTIVATE STUDENT MIGRATION
2.10 CONCLUDING REMARKS
CHAPTER 3 AFRICA’S PERCEPTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND STUDENT MIGRATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 ORGANIZATION OF THE CHAPTER
3.3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND STUDENT MOBILITY IN AFRICA
3.5 TRENDS IN STUDENT MIGRATION IN AFRICA
3.6 THE HERITAGE OF AFRICA’S HIGHER EDUCATION
3.7 HIGHER EDUCATION AND STUDENT MIGRATION IN THE SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC)
3.8 TRENDS IN STUDENT MOBILITY IN THE SADC
3.9 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
3.10 DIMENSIONS OF STUDENT MOBILITY: THE INTERNATIONAL AND THE SOUTH AFRICAN PERSPECTIVES
3.11 THE FUTURE OF STUDENT MOBILITY
3.12 THE MIGRATION OF ZIMBABWEAN STUDENTS TO SOUTH AFRICA FOR HIGHER EDUCATION
3.13 TRENDS IN STUDENT MIGRATION IN ZIMBABWE
3.14 ZIMBABWEAN STUDENTS AT SOUTH AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES
3.15 MYTHS RELATED TO STUDYING IN SOUTH AFRICA
3.16 THE EFFECTS OF STUDENT MIGRATION ON INDIVIDUALS AND ON HIGHER EDUCATION IN ZIMBABWE
3.17 THE GOVERNMENT’S EFFORTS IN RESPECT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
3.18 THE FUTURE OF STUDENT MIGRATION IN ZIMBABWE
3.19 CONCLUDING REMARKS
CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHOLOGY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN
4.3 RESEARCH METHODS
4.4 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
4.5 GUIDEPOSTS TO ETHICS
4.6 POPULATION AND SAMPLING
4.7 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
4.8 SAMPLING
4.9 RESEARCH PROCEDURES
4.10 ENCOUNTERS/EXPERIENCES WITH RESEARCH METHODS
4.11 POST-RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS
4.12 CONCLUDING REMARKS
CHAPTER 5 THE PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 PRESENTATION OF THE FINDINGS
5.3 PHASE ONE: DATA OBTAINED FROM STUDENTS STUDYING AT AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES
5.4 PHASE TWO: DATA OBTAINED FROM PARENTS WITH CHILDREN IN SOUTH AFRICA
5.5 PHASE THREE: DATA OBTAINED FROM ADMINISRTATORS AT ZIMBABWEAN UNIVERSITIES
5.6 PHASE FOUR: DATA OBTAINED FROM LECTURERS AT ZIMBABWEAN UNIVERSITIES
5.7 STUDENTS STUDYING IN SOUTH AFRICA – PROSPECTS
5.8 PARENTS WITH CHILDREN IN SOUTH AFRICA – WISHES
5.9 LECTURERS AND ADMINISTRATORS – RECOMMENDATIONS
5.10 CONCLUDING REMARKS
CHAPTER 6 ANALYSES, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
6.2 AIM OF THE STUDY
6.3 RESEARCH METHODS
6.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY
6.5 THEORETICAL REINFORCEMENT
6.6 CHALLENGES IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN ZIMBABWE
6.7 RECOMMENDATIONS IN RESPECT OF POLICY ON THE HIGHER EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY
6.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
6.9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
6.10 FINAL CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
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