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CHAPTER II A SURVEY OF THE HISTORY OF RESEARCH ON PROPHECY AND ESCHATOLOGY
It must be said from this section that this research is undertaken not because there is lack of recent and informative review articles to the status of research on the prophets, especially those pertaining to the Book of Malachi.1 Thus, the aim of this thesis and in particular this chapter is, therefore not to increase the existing material, but rather to represent definite contributions and conclusions from some erudite scholars who have tried their intellectual abilities on the prophets for scholarly exegesis. In this section of the research, an even more restricted perspective is provided. The purpose of these concise presentations is to set a perspective for the present work. In the process, it reflects on prophet, prophecy, prophetic books, and eschatology.
OLD TESTAMENT SCHOLARSHIP ON PROPHET, PROPHECY AND PROPHETIC BOOKS
In recent decades, there has been a strong interest in studying the prophets as literature. The interpretations of several past years have revealed that the prophetic books are not merely a mountain of words underneath which the individual oracles of the men of God lie hidden like treasures, but that they are like literary cathedrals that have been crafted – or rather composed and revised – for centuries by various architects (Berges 2010:551). Some readers focus attention on literary devices reflecting structural coherence that allows reading them as wholes. Troxel (2012:1) states, “The prophets have long fascinated people for their stinging criticism of society, their defense of the vulnerable, and their vision for the future.”
Indeed, the study of Israelite prophecy has always been an important component of Old Testament scholarship and ancient intellectual history. One might spend a great deal of time collecting and classifying theories about the nature of Israelite prophecy and its origin (Peterson 1972:1). While historical inquiry must open the door to the character of the prophetic books in order to arrive at a certain level of knowledge, the historical task of clarifying strong impressions from prophetic writings for today’s understanding appears to lack agreement. Thus research must approach the field of the text in a manner that sees it as a new territory (Steck 2000:6-7). This section of the study focuses attention on the definition and description of the prophet, the nature and development of prophecy in the Hebrew Bible (HB) and the prophetic books.
Defining and Describing the Prophet
In all of history, events that interrupted the usual, or deviation from the ordinary, were widely thought to hold a special meaning. To uncover that meaning, ancient people consulted persons who were credited with special powers of interpretation. They sought guidance in several ways: casting lots, shooting arrows and throwing spears, then reading the results. Indeed, in the OT times God truly make His will known in various mysterious ways by dreams, visions and through the prophets (Murphy 1995:22).
Terminology for ‘Prophet’ in the Biblical History
A key element in the relationship between Yahweh and His people is the fact that he makes Himself and His will known to them. One of such important means of revelation in the OT is through prophecy. What or who then is a prophet? It has been noted that no other religious specialist has such an abundance of material in the Hebrew Bible as the prophet (Grabbe 1995:82). Thus, prophets and their alleged pronouncements were clearly important to the traditions of the Hebrew Bible. Within this body of traditions one encounters a variety of positive, negative and ambivalent perspectives. Some of these prophets are clearly considered to be ‘true prophets’, while others are termed ‘false prophets’ (Groenewald 2011a:31).
Within the HB many figures are identified, in one way or another, as prophets. Indeed, there has been an increasing recognition of the fact that prophecy was one of the various distinctive means of determining the divine will and was an integral form of ancient Near Eastern divination whose function was to confirm the identity, rule and legitimacy of the ruler and the basis and extent of royal power through communication between the ruler and the god(s) (Overholt 1989:140-47).2
The Hebrew word for prophet in the OT which confirms that which is regarded as the appropriate method of comprehending the will of the divine, namely the ecstatic prophet is nābhî’ (Edelman 2009:30). This is probably associated with the verb ‘to call’, and points to someone called by God or who called to others on God’s behalf. The divine call was vital in that it validated the prophet’s ministry and gave authority to his message.3 All the more striking is the unanimity of the testimony that Yahweh’s call alone had put them into action. He had called them in a way that was direct and unsought. Amos stresses how undesired it was: “The lion has roared; who will not fear? The Lord God has spoken; who can but prophesy?” (3:8). All of them saw an inescapable urgency confronting them and that created entirely new circumstances. Thus Yahweh’s call plunged each prophet into great loneliness, and such loneliness repeated itself many times. From such isolation they were then released into the public life of Israel (Wolf 1987:17).
Over and above the term nābhî, there are also other terms used in the HB. The words, rō’eh and ḥōzeh, come from verbs meaning ‘to see’, and are often translated ‘seer’. At one time there may have been a difference between a ‘prophet’ (nābhî’) and a ‘seer’ (rō’eh, ḥōzeh). Rowley (1967:147-160) in his Worship in Ancient Israel observes that at one point scholars regarded the nābhî’ as an ecstatic prophet, while seers prophesied to order, though this, like all other simple divisions, breaks down. Often, the HB uses the lexical groups of, nābhî’, ḥōzeh, rō’eh interchangeably and in connection with each other. From a certain stage onwards these terms were used as synonyms. It is possible that there may have been different sub-specialities in which visions were induced by different technical terms. These different types of specialists may have functioned in different contexts (Edelman 2009:32).
Samuel is described as both a rō’eh (I Sam. 9:9, 19; I Chr. 29:29) and a nābhî’ (I Sam. 3:20; 2Chr. 35:18); and Gad is both a ḥōzeh (2 Sam. 24:11; I Chr. 29:29) and a nābhî’(I Sam. 22:25; 2 Sam. 24:11) (Edelman 2009:30). In these descriptions the distinction between rō’eh4 and ḥōzeh is preserved, and Nathan, mentioned alongside Samuel and Gad, is only called a nābhî’. Truly, divine revelation enabled prophets to see what others could not. These might be glimpses of the future, or deep spiritual truths. They might also be quite practical: Saul came to Samuel because he hoped the ‘seer’ could help him to find his father’s lost donkeys (I Sam. 9:3-11) (see Habel 1965:298, 303; Shalom-Guy 2011:10). The label “prophet” is employed in the description of Gad in I Samuel 22:5, while the narrator is pleased to retain the novel label of ḥōzeh (I Chr. 21:9; 2Chr. 29:25). Outside the corpus of Deuteronomistic tradition, Auld (1983:3-23) in his assessment of the MT and LXX texts of verses that utilise the verbal or noun forms of the stem nbh‘ in the HB, notes that it was simply after the exile that nābhî’ became a label for describing characters who had been addressed with other designations in the course of their days.
It is therefore on this note that Edelman (2009:32) states, “It is not wise to assume that the three terms nābhî’, rō’eh and ḥōzeh were interchangeable in the monarchic era and that all referred to a single form of cultic functionary… a number of former distinctive specialisations have been collapsed into the single category labelled nābhî’.” To her, the nābhî’, rō’eh, ḥōzeh and possibly the sōpheh are likely candidates to have pronounced oracles, which are divinely given replies delivered through an intermediary to questions posed to a deity by one speaking to know the divine will. The intermediary speaks on behalf of the deity, but that speech can be an interpretation of a vision received through second sight, a straightforward audition, or even some sort of other sound, like wind, rustling leaves or echoing in cave, which is then interpreted and presented orally (Edelman 2009:34).
The term ’îš hā’ĕlōhîm (‘man of God’) is a somewhat different case: it is used exclusively for individual men and always positively. Although the term ’îš hā’ĕlōhîm is employed in the introduction of prophetic characters on many occasions in the HB, the practice is not extensive and prevalent (Auld 1996:28). While ’îš hā’ĕlōhîm is used of Elijah (1 Kgs. 17:17, 24; 20:28; 2 Kgs. 1:10-13) and Elisha (2 Kgs. 4:7, 16, 27; 6:6, 9-10, 15), Samuel himself, is three times introduced as ‘man of God’ (1 Sam. 9:7, 8, 10). Similarly, there are six references to Moses and three to David as ‘man of God’ (Groenewald 2011a:32).5
Although the term nābhî’ achieved primacy as the most prevalent term for prophet, the four role labels: ḥōzeh, rō’eh, nābhî’, and ’îš hā’ĕlōhîm point to moments in Israel’s history when not all intermediaries were known as nebhî’m; they point to situations in which not all intermediaries did the same thing as well as to periods when intermediaries acted at the same time in different ways (Perterson 2003:270).While terminology, however, may not always be the sole criterion by which prophets are defined as noted by Grabbe (1995:82) many prophetic figures are singled out by their social function and activities. Thus, one does not necessarily have to be called, for example, a nābhî’ to be identified as a prophet. This difference in terminology could be the result of historical development in certain historical periods. However, there is clearly an overlap in usage of the term and the identification of a prophet depends more on certain particular characteristics, rather than just the terms which are used in the specific text (Groenewald 2011a:32-33).
Again, it is clearly observed that most of the traditions concerning the prophets as one encounters them in the HB are not necessarily historical descriptions of the actual nature of prophecy but that they are a reflection of prophecy based on later perceptions (De Jong 2007:323).Thus, the imaginary descriptions of the prophets in the HB should not be taken as an actual depiction of what prophecy really was or how it functioned in Judah and Israel. The following section will focus on the different roles of the prophets as one encounters them in the HB.
The Role of the Prophet
The basic role of the OT prophet was as a mediator: bringing direct communication from God to the people. The prophetic office is described in text from the book of Exodus that says: « . . . See, I make you like god to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron shall be your prophet. You shall speak all that I command you, and your brother Aaron shall speak to Pharaoh that he let the sons of Israel go out of his land” (7:1-2; NASB).6 In the description assigned to the prophets in Chronicle (2 Chr. 9:29) the prophets are seen as people who held positions such as guardians of imperial collections rather than messengers as the three times parallel indicates: “the records of the prophet Nathan, the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite and the visions of the seer Iddo” (Beentjes 2011:37).7
It may be that individual prophets had a prophetic office in the cult at the Jerusalem temple along with the priests, especially in connection with individual and congregational service of lamentation (for example, Obadiah and Habakkuk). However, and in general one sees the prophets strongly opposed to the official temple prophets and also the priests (Isa. 28:7ff; Hos.
4:5; Mic. 3:5-8, 11; Jer. 23:11; 26:7f; Ezek. 7:26; 22:25f). Amos strongly rejects attempts at associating him with prophetic groups (7:14) and as a free husbandman stresses his independence over against official temple orders. What distinguished them and at the same time bound them together was the unsought and irresistible tie to a new word of Yahweh affecting all Israel. They had to expect it anew from time to time.
The prophet received his message from God and proclaimed it to the people on God’s behalf. That message was received in various ways. One of such ways is through the Spirit of God.9 The principal and/or standard example of prophetic declaration is conveyed by David. As soon as he opened with the signatory formulae neûm dāwidh ben-yishay, “the declaration of David son of Jesse,” he declared the power and influence of his declaration, “the Spirit of Yahweh spoke though me, His word was upon my tongue; the God of Israel has spoken, the Rock of Israel has said to me . . .” (2 Sam. 23:1-3). Prophesying thus is a sign of the spirit coming upon a person; for example the elders of Israel (Num. 11:25-29), Saul (I Sam.10:6, 10; 19:23), Saul’s men (I Sam. 19:20), and ultimately, all people, (Joel 2:28; cf. Isa. 59:21). The spirit inspires prophets, enabling them to speak God’s word (e.g. Ezek. 11:5; Mic. 3:8). In Hosea 9:7, prophet is parallel to inspired man (’îš hārûaḥ ‘man of the spirit’).
Declaration
Dedication
Acknowledgements
List of Abbreviations
Table of Hebrew Transliteration
Summary of Thesis
Abstract
Table of Contents
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
1.1. SETTING OF THE PROBLEM
1.2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
1.3. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.4. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
1.5. DELIMITATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY
1.6. SUMMARY
CHAPTER II A SURVEY OF THE HISTORY OF RESEARCH ON PROPHECY AND ESCHATOLOGY
2.1. OLD TESTAMENT SCHOLARSHIP ON PROPHET, PROPHECY AND PROPHETIC BOOKS
2.1.1. Defining and Describing the Prophet
2.1.1.1. Terminology for ‘Prophet’ in the Biblical History
2.1.1.2 The Role of the Prophet
2.1.1.3. True and False Prophets
2.1.1.4. The message of the Prophets
2.1.2. Nature and Development of Prophecy
2.1.3. Overview of the Prophetic Books
2.1.3.1. The Concept of Prophetic Books
2.1.3.2. Identification of the Socio-Historical Setting
2.1.3.3. Materials within the Prophetic Collections
2.2. OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETIC ESCHATOLOGY
2.2.1. Eschatological Hope in the Old Testament
2.2.2. Malachi’s Eschatological Discourses
2.2.2.1. Malachi’s Eschatological Figures
2.2.2.2. The Duties of the Eschatological Messengers in Malachi
2.3. SUMMARY
CHAPTER III THE TEMPLE IN ISRAEL’S PROPHETIC TRADITION
3.1. CONCEPTIONS OF THE TEMPLE
3.2. PROPHETIC CRITICISMS OF THE TEMPLE WITHIN ISRAEL’S PROPHETIC HERITAGE
3.3. SUMMARY
CHAPTER IV INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI
4.1. BACKGROUND ANALYSIS OF THE BOOK MALACHI
4.2. HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF MALACHI
4.3. SUMMARY
CHAPTER V EXEGETICAL ANALYSIS OF MALACHI’S VIEW ON TEMPLE RITUALS
5.1. DETERMINATION OF PASSAGES DEALING WITH THE TEMPLE RITUAL MALPRACTICES
5.2. ETHICAL DIMMENSIONS IN MALACHI’S TEMPLE RITUAL CRITICISM
5.3. SUMMARY
CHAPTER VI ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF MALACHI’S VIEW ON TEMPLE RITUALS
6.1. THEOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
6.2. SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS
6.3. ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS
6.4. SUMMARY
CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1. CONCLUSION
7.2. RECOMMENDATIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX
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