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TALENT IDENTIFICATION: ORIENTATION OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS

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INTRODUCTION

“Sport forms an integral and important part of today’s society, not only in South Africa, but the world at large. Not only is it a physical outlet for the masses of participants who practice it for a variety of reasons and motivations, but also an emotional outlet for the even larger numbers of people who prefer to partake in the spectacle of sport from the comforts of their own homes, the so-called ‘arm-chair specialists’” (Booysen, 2002:1). Starkes (2003:4) concurs with the above sentiments when saying that “Sport is unlike most human endeavours. It inspires poets and artists while it energizes armchair coaches and critics.
” Starkes (2003:4) then emphasises the fact that “Sport is so prevalent and so much part of our everyday lives that we take for granted the years of necessary preparation that underlie every great sporting feat.” “Countries and individuals now base their level of pride on the achievement of their sports men and women, so much so that sport has become a multi-billion dollar industry worldwide” (Booysen, 2002:1). It goes without saying that sport as a mass- market product and as an industry generates vast sums of money, but it is also further a target for equally vast sums of money in the form of sponsorship and investment.
Sport as a commodity has grown incrementally in South Africa and the world over. In referring to estimates from the Associated Press back in 1991, Stotlar (1993) says that in the United States of America, sport is a massive concern that falls within the top 25 largest industries in that country and is worth approximately $180 billion. If this was the case in the early 1990’s, one can only imagine what the scenario is like today, more than a decade and a half later. While South Africa’s sport industry pales in comparison to America’s, primarily due to the comparative market sizes of the respective countries, it is no secret that sport is a major industry in South Africa. Millions, if not billions, of rands are spent on sponsorships, endorsements and the like, and so it is fair to say that a number of industries in South Africa, whether tied to sport however tenuously or not, see the value of associating their brands and services with the image of sport. According to Koenderman (2007), the total amount spent on sport sponsorship in South Africa in 2006, including the outlay spent on leveraging this sponsorship, exceeded R4.8bn.
This amount was an increase of 18.5% on that spent in 2005. These figures are confirmed by the Beeld Newspaper (19 April 2007:30) who state that according to the latest figures of 2006, R2.6bn was spent on actual sponsorship with an extra 85c for every rand of this sponsorship investment spent on further leveraging the sponsorship. This increase in sponsorship expenditure mirrors trends across the world; in 2002, more than two thirds of the $26 billion dollars spent on sponsorship worldwide was spent on sport (Crompton, 2004). According to Ali et al. (2006), the worldwide spend on sponsoring sport and related events in 2004 amounted to $28 billion with the accompanying leveraging costs adding up to 70% more to this amount. In the United States of America alone, the total amount spent on sponsorship increased to $8.5 billion in 2002, from an initial $850 million in 1985 (Maher et al., 2006).
In 1998 cigarette companies in America spent $125.6 million on sponsoring sports and events. Up to 70% of the amount spent by tobacco companies on sponsoring sport is dedicated to motor sports, although growth in these figures will undoubtedly be affected by the sponsorship limitations placed upon the tobacco companies that came into effect in November 2001 (Siegel, 2001). Sport has seemingly become a commodity from which satisfactory results are a pre- requisite. This commoditisation of sport has had some fairly obvious results. The laid back approach to sport adopted in the past are well and truly behind us, with this point so eloquently highlighted by Cooke (2004:19) who, when describing the Australian sporting context, states that “During most of the history of organised sport, recruitment was a matter of putting a notice on school bulletin boards, or placing an advertisement in the local newspaper, and waiting to see who showed up.” Cooke (2004:19) goes on to say further that “…by the mid-1970s, it was becoming clear this was not enough and that reform, enabling sports to make the best of the nations’ limited potential, was essential.”

TABLE OF CONTENTS :

  • TITLE PAGE
  • DEDICATION
  • ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
  • SUMMARY
  • OPSOMMING
  • TABLE OF CONTENTS
  • LIST OF FIGURES
  • LIST OF TABLES
  • LIST OF APPENDICES
  • CHAPTER ONE: RESEARCH PROBLEM AND GOAL OF STUDY
    • 1.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
    • 1.3 GOAL OF STUDY
    • 1.3.1 Primary goals and aims
    • 1.3.2 Secondary goals and aims
    • 1.4 HYPOTHESIS
    • 1.5 METHODS
    • 1.5.1 Literature review
    • 1.5.2 Empirical investigation
    • 1.5.2.1 Design
    • 1.5.2.2 Measuring instruments
    • 1.5.2.2.1 Final test protocol
    • 1.5.2.3 Data analysis and assimilation
  • CHAPTER TWO: TALENT IDENTIFICATION: ORIENTATION OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS
    • 2.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 2.2 TERMS AND CONCEPTS
    • 2.2.1 Talent
    • 2.2.1.1 Talent vs. giftedness
    • 2.2.1.2 Centrist and interactionist views of the nature and origin of talent
    • 2.2.1.3 Nurture-based views of talent
    • 2.2.1.4 Further definitions of talent in literature
    • 2.2.1.5 Conceptual definition of talent
    • 2.2.2 Skill
    • 2.2.3 Identification
    • 2.2.3.1 Conceptual definition of talent identification
    • 2.2.3.1.1 Talent identification vs. talent detection, selection and development
    • 2.2.4 Expert
    • 2.2.5 Performance
    • 2.2.5.1 Conceptual definition of expert performance in sport
    • 2.2.5.1.1 Orientation of the terms “expert performance in sport” and “elite sport”
    • 2.2.6 Expertise
  • CHAPTER THREE: SPORT AND RUGBY
    • 3.1 INTRODUCTION 443.1.1 Chapter outline
    • 3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SPORT
    • 3.3 SOCIOLOGICAL AND SOCIETAL TRENDS IN SPORT
    • 3.4 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CURRENT DAY PERSPECTIVES OF RUGBY UNION
    • 3.4.1 The beginning
    • 3.4.2 Rugby in South Africa
    • 3.4.3 Modern perspectives 60CHAPTER FOUR: TALENT IDENTIFICATION: PHYSICAL PERSPECTIVES,
    • NATURE VERSUS NURTURE AND DEVELOPMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
    • 4.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 4.1.1 Chapter outline
    • 4.2 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS AND FACTORS IN SPORT AND RUGBY
    • 4.2.1 Anthropometric and physiological variables
    • 4.2.2 Sport-specific skill variables
    • 4.3 MATURATION, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
    • 4.3.1 Periods of life-span development
    • 4.3.2 Phases of motor-behaviour development
    • 4.3.3 Early maturation and sport
    • 4.3.4 Relative-age effect
    • 4.4 NATURE AND GENETICS VERSUS NURTURE AND DEVELOPMENT
    • 4.4.1 Specific genetic explanations for elite performance in sport and physical proficiency with associated rebuttals
    • 4.4.1.1 Genetic explanations of elite performance in sport and physical proficiency
    • 4.4.1.2 Rebuttals, environmental and developmental considerations of talent and ability
    • 4.4.1.2.1 Rebuttals to genetic constraints on Performance
    • 4.4.1.2.1a Genetic constraints on VO2 max
    • 4.4.1.2.1b Genetic constraints on muscle fibre types
    • 4.4.1.2.1c ACE I/D gene findings
    • 4.4.2 Role of significant others in the development of talent and excellence in sport
    • 4.4.2.1 Support and role of parents
    • 4.4.2.2 Peer interaction and support
    • 4.4.2.3 Interactions between athletes and coaches
    • 4.4.3 Specific talent and expertise developmental models for sport
    • 4.4.3.1 Characteristics of talented performers (Bloom, 1985)
    • 4.4.3.2 Theory of deliberate practice (Ericsson et al., 1993)
    • 4.4.3.3 Stages of development in sport (Côté, 1999)
    • 4.4.3.4 Developmental model of sport participation (Côté et al., 2007)
    • 4.4.3.5 Stages of development (Button & Abbott, 2007)
    • 4.5 SUMMARY AND APPLICATION TO TALENT IDENTIFICATION AND DEVELOPMENT
    • 4.5.1 Physical perspectives and talent identification
    • 4.5.2 Nature versus nurture
    • 4.5.3 Talent development and identification
    • CHAPTER FIVE: PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
    • 5.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 5.1.1 Background of sport psychology
  • 5.1.2 Chapter outline
    • 5.2 MOTIVATION, COMMITMENT AND PRACTICE
    • 5.2.1 Achievement goal theory
    • 5.2.1.1 Profile of goal orientation questionnaire (PGOQ) (Wilson et al., 2006:298)
    • 5.2.2 Self-determination theory
    • 5.2.2.1 Hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 2007:60)
    • 5.2.3 Sport commitment model
    • 5.2.4 Deliberate practice
    • 5.3 PERCEPTUAL-COGNITIVE AND PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR SKILLS
    • 5.3.1 Perceptual-cognitive abilities and skills
    • 5.3.1.1 Background
    • 5.3.1.1.1 Cognitive revolution
    • 5.3.1.1.2 Information-processing approach
    • 5.3.1.2 Leading research findings
    • 5.3.1.2.1 Information recall, retention and recognition (Helsen & Starkes, 1999)
    • 5.3.1.2.2 Sport specific knowledge (Bock-Jonathan et al., 2007)
    • 5.3.1.2.3 Faster and more efficient processing of Information (Starkes et al., 2001)
    • 5.3.1.2.3a Situational probabilities (Williams et al., 2004:332)
    • 5.3.1.2.3b Visual search behaviour (Williams et al., 2004:330)
    • 5.3.1.2.3c Advanced cue utilisation (Williams & Ward, 2007:205)
    • 5.3.1.2.4 Trainability and transferability of perceptual-cognitive abilities
    • 5.3.2 Perceptual-motor abilities and skills
    • 5.3.2.1 Ecological psychology
    • 5.3.2.2 Dynamical systems theory
    • 5.4 MENTAL TOUGHNESS
    • 5.4.1 Recent studies on mental toughness
    • 5.4.1.1 Mental toughness framework (Jones et al., 2007)
    • 5.4.1.2 Elite athlete development model (Cooper & Goodenough, 2007)
    • 5.5 SUMMARY AND APPLICATION TO TALENT IDENTIFICATION
    • 5.5.1 Interrelation of psychological skills, attributes and abilities
    • 5.5.1.1 Motivation, commitment, practice and enjoyment
    • 5.5.1.1.1 Commonalities
    • 5.5.1.2 Role of practice in perceptual-cognitive and perceptual motor skills
    • 5.5.1.2.1 Practice and perceptual-cognitive skills
    • 5.5.1.2.2 Practice and perceptual-motor skills
    • 5.5.1.2.3 Practice and skill transfer
    • 5.5.1.3 Impact of interrelatedness on talent identification and development
    • 5.5.2 Incorporation of mental toughness measures in talent identification protocols
    • 5.5.3 Recommendations regarding the inclusion of perceptual cognitive and perceptual-motor tests within talent identification protocols
    • 5.5.3.1 Film and video-based simulations, virtual-reality and field based and methods
    • 5.5.3.1.1 Eye movement recordings and visual occlusion techniques (Williams & Ward, 2007)
    • 5.5.3.1.2 Protocol analysis (Hodges et al., 2007)
    • 5.5.3.2 Recommendations for the inclusion of these methods in talent identification protocols
  • CHAPTER SIX: TALENT IDENTIFICATION: HISTORICAL AND CURRENT PRACTICES
    • 6.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 6.1.1 Chapter outline
    • 6.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TALENT IDENTIFICATION
    • 6.2.1 Gimbel (1976)
    • 6.2.2 Harre (1982)
    • 6.2.3 Havlicek et al. (1982)
    • 6.2.4 Bompa (1985)
    • 6.2.5 Conceptual model for talent identification
    • 6.2.5.1 Régnier (1987)
    • 6.2.5.1.1 Identification of sport-specific requirements
    • 6.2.5.1.2 Identification of determinants of performance
    • 6.2.6 Talent identification in South Africa
    • 6.3 ORIENTATION OF THIS STUDY
    • 6.4 CURRENT DAY PERSPECTIVES ON TALENT IDENTIFICATION
    • 6.4.1 Modern day perspectives on talent identification
    • 6.4.1.1 Problems
    • 6.4.1.2 Solutions and recommendations
    • 6.4.2 Genetic doping and testing
    • 6.5 SANZAR APPROACHES TO TALENT IDENTIFICATION AND DEVELOPMENT
    • 6.5.1 Talent identification and development at the South African Rugby Union
    • 6.5.1.1 Talent identification
    • 6.5.1.1.1 Testing protocol SARU
    • 6.5.1.2 Talent development
    • 6.5.2 Talent identification and development at the New Zealand Rugby Union
    • 6.5.2.1 Talent identification
    • 6.5.2.1.1 Testing protocol NZRU
    • 6.5.2.2 Talent development
    • 6.5.3 Talent identification and development at the Australian Rugby Union
    • 6.5.3.1 Talent identification
    • 6.5.3.1.1 Testing protocol ARU
    • 6.5.3.2 Talent development
    • 6.6 SUMMARY
  • CHAPTER SEVEN: EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION
    • 7.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 7.1.2 Chapter outline
    • 7.2 REPORTING OF INTERVIEWS WITH NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVEL COACHES
    • 7.2.1 International and national level coaches and conditioners
    • 7.2.1.1 Eugene Eloff
    • 7.2.1.2 Jake White
    • 7.2.1.3 Peter de Villiers
    • 7.2.1.4 Ashley Evert and Pieter Terblanche
    • 7.2.1.5 Nick Mallett
    • 7.2.1.6 Robbie Deans
    • 7.2.2 Results of interview
    • 7.2.2.1 Tight forwards
    • 7.2.2.1.1 General
    • 7.2.2.1.2 Physical-motor
    • 7.2.2.1.3 Position and game-specific skills
    • 7.2.2.1.4 Psychological, vision, anticipation and reading of the game
    • 7.2.2.2 Loose forwards
    • 7.2.2.2.1 General
    • 7.2.2.2.2 Physical-motor
    • 7.2.2.2.3 Position and game-specific skills
    • 7.2.2.2.4 Psychological, vision, anticipation and reading of the game
    • 7.2.2.3 Backline players
    • 7.2.2.3.1 General
    • 7.2.2.3.2 Physical-motor
    • 7.2.2.3.3 Position and game-specific skills
    • 7.2.2.3.4 Psychological, vision, anticipation and reading of the game
    • 7.2.2.4 Discussion of findings
    • 7.3 FINAL TESTING PROTOCOL
    • 7.3.1 Background
    • 7.3.1.1 Anthropometry and physical-motor
    • 7.3.1.2 Sport-specific skills
    • 7.3.1.3 Sport vision testing
    • 7.3.2 Sample group
    • 7.3.3 Final test protocol
    • 7.3.3.1 Anthropometrical measurements
    • 7.3.3.2 Physical-motor measurements
    • 7.3.3.3 Rugby-specific self-devised skills tests
    • 7.3.3.4 Sport vision tests
    • 7.3.4 In-depth discussion of final test protocol
    • 7.3.4.1 Anthropometric measurements
    • 7.3.4.1.1 Body mass
    • 7.3.4.1.2 Body stature (height)
    • 7.3.4.1.3 Skinfold measurements
    • 7.3.4.2 Physical-motor measurements
    • 7.3.4.2.1 Vertical jump
    • 7.3.4.2.2 10m/40m dash
    • 7.3.4.2.3 T-Test
    • 7.3.4.2.4 3x5x22m Anaerobic capacity test
    • 7.3.4.2.5 Description of the discarded physical-motor tests
    • 7.3.4.3 Rugby-specific self devised skills tests
    • 7.3.4.3.1 S-Test (core skills)
    • 7.3.4.3.2 Kick for distance and accuracy (core skills)
    • 7.3.4.3.3 Description of the discarded sport-specific skills tests
    • 7.3.4.3.4 Description of the modified sport-specific skills test
    • 7.3.4.4 Sport vision testing
    • 7.3.4.4.1 Accuvision 1000 “30 accurate lights in total time” test
    • 7.3.4.4.2 Description of the discarded sport vision test
    • 7.4 STATISTICAL METHODS
    • 7.4.1 The following statistical data analysis procedures were used
    • 7.4.1.1 Descriptive statistics
    • 7.4.1.2 Inferential statistics
    • 7.4.1.2.1 Kruskal-Wallis One-Way Analysis of Variance
    • 7.4.1.3 Norms
  • CHAPTER EIGHT: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
    • 8.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 8.1.1 Statistical data analysis procedures
    • 8.1.2 Chapter outline
    • 8.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA BY MEANS OF FREQUENCIES
    • 8.2.1 Data sampling
    • 8.3 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF VARIABLES THAT DID NOT REMAIN THE SAME ACROSS MEASUREMENTS OR VARIABLES WITH SMALL BASE SIZES
    • 8.3.1 Protocol 1/Test 1: Blue Bulls U/
    • 8.3.2 Protocol 2/Test 2: South Africa U/
    • 8.3.3 Protocol 3/Test 3: TUKS Rugby Academy
    • 8.4 NON-PARAMETRIC ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE AMONGST DIFFERENT GROUPED POSITIONS
    • 8.4.1 Anthropometric components
    • 8.4.2 Physical-motor components
    • 8.4.3 Sport vision testing
    • 8.5 NORM TABLES OF COMPARABLE VARIABLES
    • 8.5.1 Norm tables of S-test as determined for the second and third measurement combined
    • 8.5.1.1 Implications of the scoring system for the S-Test
    • 8.5.1.1.1 Zero score
    • 8.5.1.1.2 Five score
    • 8.5.1.1.3 Ten score
    • 8.5.1.1.4 Twenty score
    • 8.6 SUMMARY OF RESULTS
    • 8.6.1 Summary of inconsistent tests
    • 8.6.2 Summary of consistent tests
  • CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
    • 9.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 9.1.1 Chapter outline
    • 9.2 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM LITERATURE
    • 9.2.1 Terms and concepts
    • 9.2.2 Sport and rugby
    • 9.2.3 Physical perspectives
    • 9.2.3.1 Nature versus nurture
    • 9.2.4 Psychological perspectives
    • 9.2.5 Talent identification
    • 9.2.5.1 Talent identification in SANZAR
    • 9.3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION
    • 9.3.1 Interviews with coaches and conditioning specialists
    • 9.3.2 Test protocol evolution
    • 9.3.3 Results obtained
    • 9.3.1.1 Discarded tests
    • 9.3.3.2 Final test protocol
    • 9.4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING STUDY HYPOTHESIS
    • BIBLIOGRAPHY
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