TEACHING, ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK IN ADULT LEARNING

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CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the various methods employed in teaching adult learners in Ghana and South Africa. With this in mind, Chapter 2 focused on learning in general and adult learning in particular. Various theories on adult learning were reviewed so as to understand how adults effectively learn. Chapter 3 discussed the various approaches and methods employed in facilitating learning amongst adult learners.
This chapter focuses on the empirical process adopted in the conduct of the study. This chapter therefore discusses the research approach, design, population, sample and sampling technique. It further deliberates on the data collection instruments and procedure, reliability and validity of data collection instruments, and method of data analysis.

RESEARCH APPROACH

In order to understand social phenomena, researchers employ different approaches depending on the nature and purpose of the investigation. Pickard (2007, cited in Lor, 2011:5) echoes a fairly common standpoint that there are two basic methodologies: quantitative and qualitative; and for that matter the choice between these two is the highest level of methodological decision. The main aim of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the methods employed in teaching adult learners in adult education programmes in Ghana and South Africa. As a result, the researcher sought to report on the lived experiences of the both adult educators and learners on the effectiveness of the methods employed in the teaching-learning encounter. Therefore, the qualitative research approach was adopted for this study.
Qualitative research refers to an “in-depth study using face-face or observation techniques to collect data from people in their natural settings” (McMillan & Schumacher, 2014:5). Given (2008:xxix) opines that qualitative research is designed to explore the human elements of a given topic, where specific methods are used to examine how individuals see and experience the world. The researcher defines qualitative research as an in-depth investigation into a phenomenon whereby the researcher seeks to report on the lived experiences of the research participants. According to Creswell (2007:37):
Qualitative research begins with assumptions, a worldview, and the possible use of a theoretical lens and the study of research problems inquiring into the meaning individuals or group ascribe to a social or human problem. To study this problem, qualitative researchers use an emerging qualitative approach to inquiry, the collection of data in a nature setting sensitive to the people and places under study, and data analysis that is inductive and establishes patterns or themes. The final written report or presentation includes the voices of participants, the reflectivity of the researcher, and a complex description and interpretation of the problem.
Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2007) note that qualitative research studies investigate the quality of relationships, activities, situations, or materials. They further argue that this type of research differs from quantitative methodologies in that there is a greater emphasis on holistic description – that is, on describing in detail all of what goes on in a particular activity or situation rather than on comparing the effects of a particular treatment (as in experimental research), say, or on describing the attitudes or behaviors of people (as in survey research). Denzin and Lincoln (2005:3) offer an elaborate explanation of qualitative research. According to them:
Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that makes the world visible. These practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
Qualitative research has some characteristics which differentiate it from other research approaches, i.e. quantitative and mixed methods research. McMillan and Schumacher (2014:345) suggest some prominent characteristics of qualitative research which are discussed below:
1. Natural setting: a distinguishing characteristic of qualitative research is that behaviour is studied as it occurs naturally. This means that the qualitative researcher is interested in studying individuals and phenomena in their natural setting. McMillan and Schumacher (2014:345) contend that “there is no manipulation or control of behaviour or settings, or are there any externally imposed constraints”. Methods are, therefore, employed which enable the researcher to capture the unadulterated human behaviour or events.
2. Context sensitivity: it is important to note that human beings are influenced by their environments (natural or artificial). Therefore, qualitative researchers pay particular attention to the context of the phenomena which they study. McMillan and Schumacher (ibid.) note that it is assumed that an explanation of behaviour that does not take into account the context is incomplete.
3. Direct data collection: data collection represents an important stage in any scientific inquiry. One of the main goals of qualitative research is to report on the lived experiences of the researched. As such there is the need for qualitative researchers to generate rich data in order to understand the research problem. According to McMillan and Schumacher (ibid.), in qualitative studies, the researcher usually acts as an observer in the natural setting of the participants, either as an interviewer, observer, or the person who studies artifacts and documents.
4. Rich narrative descriptions: in the words of McMillan and Schumacher (2014:346) “qualitative researchers approach a situation with the assumption that nothing is trivial or unimportant. Every detail that is recorded is thought to contribute to a better understanding of behaviour”. The goal of qualitative researchers is to report on the lived experiences of the research participants. They must, therefore, capture live events in the natural setting. In order to make meaning of what has been captured, the researcher gives a detailed account of the behaviour, event, and phenomena of interest. Ideally the researcher must report verbatim on what has been observed.
5. Process orientation: according to McMillan and Schumacher (ibid.), qualitative researchers are interested in finding out how and why behaviour occurs. In actual fact, they are interested in explaining the process(es) by which a certain behaviour, event, or phenomena occurs. For instance, this study is interested in finding out how effective the various methods employed in teaching adult learners in Ghana and South Africa are. The researcher is, therefore, not interested in documenting the various methods employed in teaching the learners. Instead the researcher focuses on how adult educators in two selected countries use various teaching methods to promote learning amongst learners and their effectiveness thereof.
6. Inductive data analysis: “qualitative researchers do not formulate hypotheses and gather data to prove or disprove them (deduction), rather, the data are gathered first and then synthesized inductively to generate generalisations” (McMillan & Schumacher, 2014:347). They are more interested in understanding and explaining a phenomenon based on the data generated. In order to accurately explain the phenomenon of interest, qualitative researchers have to piece together a variety of data collected through different instruments for the purpose of generating themes and sub-themes which concern a given issue.
7. Participant perspectives: in qualitative research the researcher is interested in reporting on the lived experiences of the participants. Participants’ perspectives which represent how those being studied perceive or experience reality takes centre stage in qualitative research. In the current study, the researcher sought to report on effectiveness of the various methods used in teaching adult learners from the perspective of both learners and educators.
8. Complex understanding and explanation: according to McMillan and Schumacher (2014:348), “central to qualitative research is the belief that the world is complex and that there are few simple explanations for human behaviour”. A single behaviour may have different interpretations and explanations. They further contend that it follows, then, that the methods of investigating behaviour and its subsequent explanations need to be complex to capture the true meaning of what is studied.
The characteristics discussed above were taken into consideration before opting to employ the qualitative research approach for this study. This research sought to study the participants in their natural environment i.e. their classroom. The teacher’s behaviour (in this case, teaching) was put under the spotlight. An understanding of the effectiveness of the methods employed by the teacher in promoting learning amongst the learners is premised upon the effect they have on the adult learners (in terms of promoting subject matter comprehension and eliciting the participation of learners in the lesson). Therefore, in order to understand how effective the teachers’ teaching methods are, the researcher had to select both teachers and learners for the study. The idea behind such a selection was to gain a deeper and varied understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. This means that through the qualitative researcher’s lens there is no single explanation for a phenomenon. Certain related and unrelated factors contribute to producing a phenomenon. The research also took into account the effect that the context in which teaching and learning occurs has on the teaching and learning encounter.
With a view to capturing live and authentic events in the field, the researcher did not seek to interfere with activities that took place within the classroom. In addition, the researcher did not have any pre-set ideas about the intended outcomes of the study. As such, this study did not begin with a design in mind. The research design developed as the study progressed through the various phases.

Philosophical Considerations for Choice of Research Approach

The choice of the qualitative research approach for this study was based on various paradigmatic arguments. According to Bryman (1988:4), a paradigm is “a cluster of beliefs and dictates which for scientists in a particular discipline influence what should be studied, how research should be done, and how results should be interpreted”. Paradigms thus define different views of the social world based upon different meta-theoretical assumptions with regard to the nature of science and society (Pansiri, 2005:192). Paradigms can be considered as philosophical perspectives that guide scholars and researchers in their work. As has been noted by Savin-Baden and Major (2013:18):
without philosophical underpinning, technique can become an empty process, therefore, understanding the origins of and circumstances under which different philosophies developed can help researchers to ascertain which philosophies are compatible with their own, which in turn can help them to make better research choices and ultimately do better research.
This current study employed the qualitative research approach bearing in mind that the qualitative research approach has distinct underlying philosophies that makes it distinct from other approaches. In order to conduct a successful study, it behooves the researcher to understand the various philosophical arguments that inspire the said approach. The choice of the qualitative research approach for this study was informed by the interpretive paradigm.
According to Bryman (2012:28), interpretivists share a view that the subject matter of the social sciences – people and their institutions – is fundamentally different from that of the natural sciences. This means that the study of social phenomena should not be done in a manner that depicts the social world as following a set of rules. This is because human beings are not objects and for that matter, do not respond to stimuli mechanically. They are conscious of the environment and make decisions based on mental processes. Therefore, in order to understand social phenomena, there is the need to understand the subjective meaning of human experience. The view of Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007:21) best describes the role of the researcher in the interpretive paradigm. They assert that:
To retain the integrity of the phenomena being investigated, efforts are made to get inside the person and to understand from within. The imposition of external form and structure is resisted, since this reflects the viewpoint of the observer as opposed to that of the actor directly involved.
The above assertion brings to the fore the idea that the goal of interpretivism is to understand the meanings people give to objects, events in the environment and human behaviour. It is, however, important to stress that meaning-making is subjective and that different people will make different meanings of a particular social phenomena. This means that meaning-making is not universal but multiple. By multiple meaning-making, the researcher means that reality is informed by individual constructions that are varied and many.
Interpretivism falls under the qualitative research approach and entails an in-depth understanding of social phenomena in order to interpret how the people concerned make meaning of their experiences. This paradigm enabled the researcher to select and use multiple research methods. By multiple research methods, I mean that the qualitative research approach enabled me to select different data collection tools for this study as will be noted in subsequent paragraphs. This view is shared by Denzin and Lincoln (2005) when they assert that qualitative research embodies many things at the same time. It encompasses different paradigmatic views and hence its practitioners make use of the multi-method approach.
The researcher sought to understand how the participants made meaning of the various teaching methods employed in the teaching and learning encounter in terms of their effectiveness. The researcher was aware of the fact that truth is not objective but subjective, and consequently each participant had his/her own impression of the effectiveness of the various teaching methods. Again, the researcher ensured that the subjective meanings of the participants were adequately reported.

RESEARCH DESIGN

The study sought to compare the effectiveness of the various teaching methods employed in teaching adult learners who participate in the National Functional Literacy Programme of Ghana and the Kha Ri Gude Mass Literacy programme of South Africa. The two programmes constitute two different cases. The study thus adopted the multiple-case study research design. Multiple-case study design is a type of case study that seeks to compare two or more cases. In order to understand the idea behind multiple-case study design, there is the need to understand comparative research since this study essentially seeks to compare the effectiveness of the teaching methods employed by educators in teaching learners in adult education programmes in Ghana and South Africa. According to Mills (2008:100):
Comparative research is a broad term that refers to the evaluation of the similarities, differences, and associations between entities. Entities may be based on many lines such as statements from an interview or individual, symbols, case studies, social groups, geographical or political configurations, and cross-national comparisons. Comparative research is used within most qualitative approaches, such as comparisons by core emic categories in ethnographic studies, within-case comparisons in phenomenology, case study comparisons, comparative politics, and examination of contrasts in narrative and discourse analysis.
Bryman (2012:74) notes that when comparative research is applied to qualitative research, it occurs in the form of a multiple-case study hence the choice of the multiplecase study design for this study. According to Yin (2003, cited in Baxter & Jack, 2008:548) a multiple case study enables the researcher to explore differences within and between cases. The multiple-case study is a comparative research design that seeks to understand social phenomena by comparing cases. The goal is to compare findings across cases. Because comparisons will be drawn, it is imperative that the cases are chosen carefully so that the researcher can predict similar results across cases, or predict contrasting results based on a theory.
A distinction is necessary at this point between a single-case study and a multiple-case study. While the former is an approach to research that facilitates exploration of a phenomenon within its context using a variety of data sources, the latter involves studying two or more cases in order to allow the researcher to analyse data within each setting and across settings (Baxter & Jack, 2008:544). In other words, the single-case study offers the researcher the opportunity to study a unique case in-depth. A multiple-case study on the other hand enables the researcher to study different cases in order to understand the differences and similarities between the cases.
Pettigrew and Whipp’s (1991) study of eight British companies (cited in Bryman, 2012:75) is a classic example of a multiple-case study. By strategically choosing companies, they were able to establish the common and differentiating factors that lay behind successful management of change. Comparative research has become popular among qualitative researchers perhaps because of its ability to provide a better understanding of social phenomena. Rihoux (2006: 680) speaks of the popularity and the motive behind conducting comparative research:
…generally speaking the explicitly comparative design is gaining momentum. The choice of such a strategy often reflects the intention of scholars to meet two apparently contradictory goals. On the one hand, one seeks to gather in-depth insight in the different cases and capture the complexity of the cases – to gain intimacy with the cases…. On the other hand, one still wishes to produce some level of generalization…. Indeed, in empirical social science, both case-orientated work and techniques that allow one to generalize (typically quantitative, i.e. statistical, techniques) are useful.
The views of Rihoux suggest that in conducting multiple case studies both qualitative and quantitative data can be elicited. Multiple-case studies can be in the form of cross-societal studies. Ragin (1987:6) opines that “cross-societal similarities and differences… constitute the most significant feature of the social landscape, and, consequently, crosssocietal researchers have an unmistakable preference for explanations that cite macrosocial phenomena…” Ragin (ibid.:35) commenting on the significance of case study research for the purpose of comparison asserted that:
The goals of case-oriented investigation often are both historically interpretive and causally analytic. Interpretive work … attempts to account for significant historical outcomes or sets of comparable outcomes or processes by piecing evidence together in a manner sensitive to historical chronology and offering limited historical generalizations which are sensitive to context. Thus, comparativists who use case-oriented strategies often want to understand or interpret specific cases because of their intrinsic value. Most, but not all, caseoriented work is also causal analytic. This companion goal is to produce limited generalizations concerning the causes of theoretically defined categories of empirical phenomena … common to a set of cases.
The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of the methods employed in teaching adult learners in the NFLP and the KRG programmes of Ghana and South Africa respectively. Therefore, in line with the view of Ragin (ibid.), the researcher opined that by studying the two cases, he would be able to understand the context as well as the motive behind the choice of the various teaching methods. The study areas selected for this study present different socio-economic contexts that have far-reaching implications for education and curriculum. As a result, the research sought to study each case in its own right. Therefore, the multiple-case study design was deemed appropriate for such purpose.

 Basis for Selection of Cases

In order to effectively compare different programmes, there is the need to identify parallels between them. The researcher sought to compare the effectiveness of teaching methods employed in the KRG and NFLP programmes of South Africa and Ghana respectively. Therefore, there was need to identify the similarities between the programmes under study. The basis upon which the researcher sought to compare the KRG and NFLP rests on the following factors:
 Both programmes are mass functional literacy and numeracy initiatives aimed at reducing the rate of illiteracy among the populace. The purpose of both programmes is to give participants knowledge, skills, and attitudes in order to be functional in their day-to-day activities.
 Both programmes attract huge numbers of participants who desire to enhance their literacy and numeracy skills.
 The participants in both programmes are adults.
 Both programmes rely on the services of volunteer facilitators, coordinators, and supervisors for their effective functioning.
 Both programmes are community-based in that they depend on learners from the various rural and urban communities.
 Both programmes are voluntary and participants (learners) are not compelled by any law to participate in them.
 Learners in both programmes are trained in the respective local languages and in the English language.
On the basis of the above similarities between the two programmes, the researcher was of the view that two programmes can be studied and compared in terms of the effectiveness of the various methods employed in facilitating learning amongst the participants (adult learners).

POPULATION

This is a comparative study of the effectiveness of methods used in teaching adult learners in adult education programmes in Ghana and South Africa. Therefore, the researcher opined that, in order to conduct the empirical investigation successfully, it was necessary to know how both adult educators and learners evaluate the relative effectiveness of the teaching methods. As a result, the population for the study comprised of all adult educators and learners in the NFLP and KRG programmes of Ghana and South Africa respectively. In South Africa, in 2012, there were an estimated 665 134 adult learners and 38 469 volunteer facilitators in the Kha Ri Gude Mass Literacy Campaign (DoBE, 2012).
The NFLP of Ghana operates a batch system where learners are recruited to take part in the programme for a 21-month period. Upon completion, another set of learners are then recruited. In 2012, the programme recruited an estimated 51 257 adult learners and 2 056 facilitators nationwide to constitute Batch 18 (Ministry of Education, 2013:74).

SAMPLING

In order to conduct an empirical investigation, there is the need to elicit information from research participants. As a result, the researcher needs to select an appropriate sample for the purpose of data collection. Sampling can be defined as the selection of units from within a population. Again, sampling refers to the process of choosing a suitable number of representatives of a population. The sections that follow describe the sample and the technique employed in the process of sampling.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
ACRONYMS
CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
1.5 AIMS OF THE STUDY
1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1.8 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
1.9 DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS
1.10 METHODOLOGY
1.11 DIVISION OF CHAPTERS
1.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND AN OVERVIEW OF ADULT LEARNING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
2.3 THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING
2.4 PRINCIPLES OF ADULT LEARNING
2.5 OTHER THEORIES OF ADULT LEARNING
2.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3: TEACHING, ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK IN ADULT LEARNING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 CONCEPT OF TEACHING
3.3 APPROACHES TO TEACHING
3.4 TYPES OF TEACHING
3.5 TEACHING STYLES
3.6 UNDERSTANDING THE ADULT LEARNER
3.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULT LEARNERS
3.8 TEACHING ADULT LEARNERS
3.9 METHODS OF TEACHING
3.10 ASSESSMENT IN ADULT LEARNING
3.11 FEEDBACK IN ADULT LEARNING
3.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 RESEARCH APPROACH
4.3 PHILOSOPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CHOICE OF RESEARCH APPROACH
4.4 RESEARCH DESIGN
4.5 POPULATION
4.6 SAMPLING
4.7 DATA COLLECTION
4.8 CREDIBILITY, CONFIRMABILITY AND TRANSFERABILITY
4.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
CHAPTER 5: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 RESULTS OF THE STUDY OBTAINED FROM PARTICIPANTS IN SOUTH AFRICA
5.3 RESULTS OBTAINED FROM THE INTERVIEWS
5.4 RESULTS OBTAINED FROM THE FOCUS-GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE
5.5 RESULTS OF THE STUDY OBTAINED FROM GHANA
5.6 SYNTHESIS OF RESULTS
5.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 METHODS OF TEACHING ADULT LEARNERS
6.3 EFFECTIVENESS OF THE TEACHING METHODS EMPLOYED IN TEACHING ADULT LEARNERS
6.4 EFFECTIVENESS OF ASSESSMENT METHODS EMPLOYED TO JUDGE  LEARNERS’ PROGRESS .
6.5 NATURE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF FEEDBACK PROVIDED TO LEARNERS AFTER ASSESSMENT
6.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 SUMMARY
7.3 RESEARCHER’S REFLECTIONS ON THE FINDINGS
7.4 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY FOR FIELD OF ADULT EDUCATION
7.5 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY FOR THE FIELD OF CURRICULUM STUDIES
7.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
7.7 CONCLUSION
7.8 RECOMMENDATIONS
7.9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
REFERENCES

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METHODS OF TEACHING ADULT LEARNERS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAMMES IN GHANA AND SOUTH AFRICA