TECHNIQUES USED FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF BODY SHAPES

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CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY

INTRODUCTION

A review of the literature indicates that problems related to apparel fit stem from a variety of factors, such as an outdated anthropometric database from which sizing systems could be developed, lack of classified body shapes, non-standardised communication of sizing and fit, non-standardised fit quality management and lack of agreement amongst the apparel industries (Chun-Yoon & Jasper, 1996; Holzman, 1996; Winks, 1997; Desmarteau, 2000; Loker et al., 2005). In an attempt to solve fitting problems, Ashdown developed a model of the factors determining and influencing apparel’s fit. Ashdown (2000) sees sizing systems as the focus around which all the factors concerning sizing and fit evolve. She has identified the main factors affecting sizing systems and consequently the fit of ready-made apparel to be: the population measurements (body dimensions), the design features (construction of the apparel), the fit issues (fit quality management), and the communication of sizing and fit (size labelling). These factors are presented in Figure 2.1 (as a Theoretical Framework).

SIZING SYSTEMS

A sizing system is the assignment of body dimensions and a group of body shapes representing a market segment. The body dimensions and body shapes are presented in a chart for the purposes of creating a set of ready-made apparel for a variety of people in the target market (Winks, 1991:3; Ashdown, 2000; Keiser & Garner, 2003:30; Salusso-deonier, 2005; Petrova, 2007:57). Ready-made apparel is clothing developed in advance using size tables and offered through retailers for potential customers to make selections (Loker et al., 2005). A sizing system that sets out to satisfy its target market must be up to date, precise in measurements and body shape classification (proportions), and must represent the population that it was designed for (Salusso-Deonier, 1989; Schofield, Ashdown, Hethorn, LaBat & Salusso, 2006). Sizing systems are designed to fit a segment of a population, defined by demographic data (Ashdown, 2000; Petrova, 2007:57). Most regular sizing systems in the apparel industry use the foundation size (sloper) derived from a fit model whose shape and measurements do not represent a wide population of consumers within the  targeted market (Schofield & LaBat, 2005a; Schofield et al., 2006; Schofield, 2007:152). Even though the sloper may have been created in a cut and fit that have proven successful in the past, it could be argued that dynamic fashion changes would call for a different fit philosophy in every foundation pattern at different times.
Fit is affected by grading since grading plays a key role in developing a range of apparel sizes. However, existing grading practices have little basis in measurement information from size charts, as they are not based on anthropometric research (Schofield & LaBat, 2005b). Thus a base size sloper that is finally proportionally graded into many sizes leads to poor fitting apparel, because the actual shapes and contours of individuals do not follow a similar outline (Salusso-Deonier, 1989; Workman, 1991; Glock & Kunz, 1995:108; Keiser & Garner, 2003:251; Schofield et al., 2006). Notably fit and styling ease should be varied for different body shapes, proportions and sizes – characteristics that are overlooked during grade rule application to a base size.
According to Kenya’s sizing standards, anthropometric data was last collected in 1975. Considering that these sizing systems are based on an outdated anthropometric database, it is possible that sizing systems currently in use could be an alteration of the 1975 data, or different industries might have individually made them. They could also have been borrowed or copied from other countries. It has however been observed that sizing systems that are currently being used in most developing countries are adaptations of the Western types (Zwane & Magagula, 2006). When such adopted, modified or outdated sizing systems are used, apparel’s fit problems will persist because the sizing systems used would not reflect the actual measurements and body shapes of the present Kenyan woman. Used as a point of departure and as foundation for this chapter, is Ashdown’s (2000) model of sizing systems in the apparel industry presented in Figure 2.1 below.
The framework (Figure 2.1) highlights four main factors (population measurements, design features, fit issues and communication of sizing and fit) that are useful for addressing sizing and fit problems. The model is complex and this study focuses mainly on female body shapes, as they act as the apparel’s frame and could affect all the major issues highlighted in Ashdown’s model regarding fit. This study also focuses on the communication of size and fit from the viewpoint of the consumers’ knowledge and how consumers would prefer their apparel items to fit their bodies.
The body shape, being a framework for apparel (Salluso-Deonier, 2005), will affect all four of the major factors in Ashdown’s (2000) model, either directly or indirectly. Population measurements demand that the body dimensions should be obtained from the three-dimensional body in an explicit way that will facilitate body shape classifications. Accurate reflection of the three-dimensional body’s characteristics would be achieved when the apparel has been made based on the elements of fit (grain, set, line, balance and ease) and dressed on the body (Erwin, Kinchen & Peters, 1979). Design features necessitate that the body’s framework (three-dimensional characteristics) are correctly interpreted to patterns for the construction of well-fitting apparel. The fit issues which involve fit quality management strategies call for certain fit testing techniques such as the use of fit models and dress forms. The fit models and/or the dress forms used must correspond with the body shapes and sizes of the target market. Communication of sizing and fit requires that the measurements and body shapes indicated on the size labels reflect the true picture of the target market (population).

POPULATION MEASUREMENTS (SOURCES OF SIZING SYSTEMS)

The dimensions of the human body underpin an effective sizing system and consequently better-fitting apparel items. Sizing systems originate from people’s measurements and body shapes (Bye, LaBat & DeLong, 2006:66; Petrova, 2007:56). Since the body shape is three-dimensional, the measurements obtained from it must be accurately taken and must be representative of the characteristics of body shape that are critical to the fit of apparel. This would facilitate the production of apparel items that harmonise with the body shape. The measurements and the varied body shapes can only be accurate, consistent and representative if they are taken accurately by employing correct methods, instruments and techniques (Ashdown, 2000; Simmons & Istook, 2003; Ashdown & Dunne, 2006). Ashdown’s framework illustrates how the population measurements contribute to the effectiveness of any sizing system. The measurements used should be current, accurate, consistent and representative of the population for which the system is being developed (Kunik, 1984:12; Winks, 1997; Ashdown, Loker & Adelson, 2004; Honey & Olds, 2007).
It has been observed that body shapes and proportions vary significantly from one country to another, and to some extent also within one country (Bougourd, 2007:111). Updated and current population measurements are therefore vital in most countries, in order to minimise fitting problems related to ready-made apparel (Kunik, 1984:12; Winks, 1997; Ashdown et al., 2004; Devarajan & Istook, 2004; Shin & Istook, 2007). In the event where anthropometric data shows little relationship with the target markets’ existing measurements and proportions, the existing systems should be modified to incorporate the differences in the critical fit points as well as varied body proportions (Ashdown & Dunne, 2006; Zwane & Magagula, 2006; Shin & Istook, 2007).
Body dimensions can be obtained accurately through recommended methods, namely, the traditional (ordinary) tailor or dressmaker’s method, traditional anthropometry and the three-dimensional body scanner. Once the measurements are obtained, they are transposed into patterns, which are to be used for cutting out the apparel. If the measurements taken are incorrect, the resulting apparel will contain fitting problems, no matter how accurate the other processes of production may be (Ashdown, Lyman-Clarke, Smith & Loker, 2007:349). Winks (1997) agrees that when apparel does not fit properly, the consumer is dissatisfied – irrespective of the quality of the fabric, the workmanship or even the item’s fashionability. The accuracy and the representativeness of a population’s body dimensions can be greatly influenced by measuring methods or skills employed (Bye, LaBat & DeLong, 2006: 66). Considering that the source of Kenya’s anthropometric database is unknown, the quality of the measuring methods, techniques and instruments used cannot be guaranteed. This means therefore that the skills used to create the data underlying sizing systems currently used in Kenya remain unknown and questionable. However, discussed below are some of the measuring techniques that are commonly applied.

 Traditional tailor or dressmaker’s measurements

These measurements refer to body dimensions taken manually using a tape measure (measuring tape). Measurements that are directly related to the item to be made often determine the dimensions required (Cornell University, 2004). Although reliable measurements may be obtained with experience, precision cannot be achieved. The tailor or dressmaker (with reference to Kenya) takes body dimensions when the subject is dressed in normal apparel and shoes. Most measurements are taken along the contours of the body and not in straight lines between points, while landmarking is not done before the actual taking of body dimensions. Often there is not much attentiveness by the tailor while taking measurements, particularly to the body’s areas that would be critical to the apparel’s fit. The subject’s movements while being measured would also affect measurements as a result of shifts during the measuring process. Accuracy varies significantly with different professionals in the tailoring and dressmaking fields. It depends entirely on the persons’ skills and the experience they have, particularly in their ability to capture characteristics of varied body shapes that are critical to apparel’s fit (Kunik, 1984:4; Ashdown, 2003; Yu, 2004:183-184; Aldrich, 2007:3, 5, 22). In Kenya, it could be argued that each segment of the apparel industry, both the formal and informal, uses its own style of obtaining body dimensions for each specific apparel item. Non-standardised and/or inaccurate measuring techniques, combined with the lack of skills and inappropriate tools, could result in unsatisfactory apparel (Ongile & McCormick, 1992; Mason, 1998; McCormick et al., 2002)

DECLARATION
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 
ABSTRACT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF APPENDICES
1. AN OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1.2.1 Overview of the ready-made apparel in Kenya.
1.2.2 Female consumers and marketing issues
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
1.4 PRIMARY OBJECTIVES AND SUB-OBJECTIVES
1.5 EXPECTED SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1.5.1 Emerging distinctive female body shapes
1.5.2 Career women’s perception regarding general fit problems with the ready-made apparel in Kenya
1.5.3 Consumers’ knowledge about the communication of size and fit
1.5.4 Consumers’ fit preferences
1.5.5 Contribution to existing theory
1.6 STUDY OUTLINE
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY 
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2. SIZING SYSTEMS
2.3 POPULATION MEASUREMENTS (SOURCES OF SIZING SYSTEMS)
2.3.1 Traditional tailor or dressmaker’s measurements
2.3.2 Anthropometry
2.3.2.1 Developing sizing systems from anthropometric database
2.3.3 Three-dimensional body scanning
2.4 DESIGN FEATURES.
2.4.1 Functional features
2.4.2 Materials
2.4.3 Production
2.4.3.1 Design creation stage (fashion illustration)
2.4.3.2 Pattern creation
2.4.3.3 Cutting room
2.4.3.4 Assembly
2.4.3.5 Pressing and finishing.
2.4.4 Distribution .
2.4.5 Style choices.
2.5 FIT ISSUES .
2.5.1 Perception of fit
2.5.2 Objective measure of fit
2.5.3 Fit testing
2.5.4 Wear testing
2.6 COMMUNICATION OF SIZING AND FIT
2.6.1 Size labels’ quality and consumers’ apparel selection
2.6.1.1 Uninformative size labels
2.6.1.2 Informative size labels (Figure 2.5)
2.7 CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE STUDY
2.7.1 Population measures
2.7.2 Design features
2.7.3 Fit issues
2.7.4 Communication of sizing and fit
3. SPECIFIC SUPPORTING LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUALISATION 
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 BODY SHAPE
3.3 TECHNIQUES USED FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF BODY SHAPES
3.4 FACTORS EXTERNAL TO APPAREL MANUFACTURE THAT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO POOR FIT OF READY-MADE APPAREL (FIGURE 3.23)
3.5 CONCLUSIONS
4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 PRIMARY OBJECTIVES AND SUB-OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
4.3 RESEARCH STRATEGY CHOSEN FOR THIS STUDY
4.4 CHOICE OF THE RESEARCH SAMPLE FOR THE STUDY
4.5 CHOICE, DESCRIPTION AND APPLICATION OF THE DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
4.6 DATA ANALYSIS
4.7 QUALITY OF THE DATA
4.8 ETHICS AND POLITICS
5. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS BASED ON PHASE ONE DATA 
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF DISTINCTIVE FEMALE BODY SHAPE(S) OF CAREER WOMEN IN KENYA FROM BODY DIMENSIONS (PRIMARY OBJECTIVE 1 (SUB-OBJECTIVE 1))
5.3 IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE DISTINCTIVE FEMALE BODY SHAPE (S) OF PROFESSIONAL WOMEN IN KENYA FROM PHOTOGRAPHS (OBJECTIVE 1 (SUB-OBJECTIVE 2)).
5.4 DESCRIBING ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN THE DISTINCTIVE SHAPES EMERGING FROM BODY DIMENSIONS AND THOSE EMERGING FROM THE PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CAREER WOMEN (OBJECTIVE 1 (SUB-OBJECTIVE 3))
5.5 DISTINGUISHING AND DESCRIBING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE EMERGING DISTINCTIVE BODY SHAPES (FROM DIMENSIONS AND PHOTOGRAPHS) AND THE WESTERN DISTINCTIVE BODY SHAPE (PRIMARY OBJECTIVE 2)
5.6 SCRUTINISING AND DESCRIBING FIT IMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THE EMERGING DISTINCTIVE RECTANGULAR BODY SHAPE OF CAREER WOMEN (PRIMARY OBJECTIVE 3)
5.7 CONCLUSIONS REGARDING FIT IMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH TH CURVY RECTANGULAR BODY SHAPE
6. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS BASED ON PHASETWO DATA (QUESTIONNAIRE)
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 DEMOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF THE POPULATION (Questions 1 and 2)
6.3 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 4, 5 AND 6
6.4 OVERALL DISCUSSION OF THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
7. CONCLUSIONS, EVALUATIONS, CONTRIBUTIONS TO THEORY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS REGARDING PHASE ONE DATA
7.3 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS REGARDING PHASE TWO DATA
7.4 OVERALL CONCLUSION OF THE STUDY
7.5 EVALUATION OF THE STUDY
7.6 THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY TO EXISTING THEORY
7.7 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
7.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES
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