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CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW (II): PERSONALITY AND COPING
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the second part of the literature review. It starts off by exploring the concept of human personality and the effect of violence on the personality of adolescents. It then proceeds to explain how temperament and personality conjoins and interacts to affect human behaviour and re-examines the effect of violence from that perspective.
It then explains the advances of psychology in measuring and describing personality and deals with the concept of coping.
PERSONALITY
According to Kato, Zweig, Barzilai and Atzman (2012), personality refers to a stable set of cognitive, motivational, social and emotional traits and behavioural patterns, which is influenced by familial history, genetic predisposition, environment and sociocultural factors.
Personality is one of psychology’s fundamental constructs. This does not mean that personality is either tangible, completely understood, easy to describe correctly or constant for any individual (De Haan, 2011). To the contrary, personality is best described in terms of the complex evolving pattern of underlying traits. These traits reflect near constancies in the general affective level and behaviour of individuals and comprise an intricate system of structures and processes that underlie human affect and behaviour. Personality can therefore be described as “a multifaceted organization of trait dispositions” (Denollet, 2000).
Personality partly accounts for both the marked differences in behaviour that exist among individuals as well as the consistency of any given individual’s behaviour over time and in changing contexts (Matteson, McGue & Iacono, 2013). Personality traits refer to an individual’s tendency or propensity to behave, think and feel in specific fairly consistent
ways. According to Roberts, Caspi and Moffitt (2001) personality traits are organizational constructs which influence how individuals organize their behaviour to meet environmental demands and new developmental challenges.
Personality predicts important life outcomes, such as the quality of personal relationships, adaptation to life challenges, occupational success, societal involvement, happiness, health and mortality (McAdams & Olson, 2009).
This chapter will outline the potential consequences of the exposure to interpersonal violence on the development of the personality of the adolescent and the role of coping in the process of adaptation.
THE EFFECTS OF VIOLENCE EXPOSURE ON ADOLESCENTS
Exposure of large numbers of adolescents to interpersonal violence in their communities is a societal dilemma, as witnessed by the documented toll of violence on the adolescent’s physical, emotional and academic development (Margolin et al., 2010). Exposure to interpersonal violence has been continuously linked to a range of psychological problems experienced by adolescents including traumatic stress, anxiety, depression, substance use, aggressive and antisocial behaviour problems and academic under-performance (Boxer & Sloan-Power, 2013). In Agaibi and Wilson (2005) Hall and Wilson stated that traumatic stressors, like interpersonal violence, can potentially influence any or all of the factors of personality, while prodigiously traumatic life experiences can indubitably affect the quality of life and personality in several different ways.
A large proportion of South African adolescents experience high levels of trauma exposure and high levels of stress and are consequently vulnerable to the development of PTSD symptoms which often extend into adulthood (Finchama et al., 2009). Young people who are chronically exposed to community violence may become desensitized and suppress feelings of sadness or anxiety (Fowler, Tompsett, Braciszewski, Jacques-Tiura & Baltes, 2009). Previous studies involving South African samples found that 83% of adolescent participants reported the experience of at least one serious trauma in their lifetime. Their exposure to violent trauma was significantly associated with PTSD symptoms (Finchama et al., 2009). Relative to other developmental periods, adolescence is characterized by risky decision- making, increased perceived stress and heightened reactivity to acute stress (Galván & Rahdar, 2013). Externalizing problems, such as deviant and aggressive behaviour, have been consistently associated with the consequence of exposure to community violence among children, adolescents and young adults in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies (Fowler et al., 2009).
The relationship between personality traits and trauma exposure has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers since 1980 (Lauterbach & Vrana, 2001), but not many have reported typical features displayed by traumatized youth at different developmental levels (Salmon & Bryant, 2002).
The experience of trauma may interrupt the development of interpersonal relationships, the achievement of developmental milestones such as language acquisition, security, self- regulation and trust as well as the development of coping skills (Veenema & Schroeder- Bruce, 2002). One has to take into consideration the symptoms recognized in adolescents who had exposure to violence throughout their lives. These adolescents are more likely than non-exposed adolescents to exhibit high levels of aggression and acting out (Donnelly et al., 2005). This is accompanied by anxiety, behaviour problems, truancy, school problems as well as revenge seeking. These traumatized adolescents often appear not to express feelings, with the resultant constrictions in emotional development (Donnelly et al., 2005). Furthermore, the experience of trauma has the potential to destroy trust. It might lead to the belief that the adolescent have been let down or betrayed by others. It is also associated with high levels of anger and a loss of belief in the good intentions of others (Brewin & Holmes, 2003). Exposure to community violence can lead to chronic hyper-arousal. The pervasiveness of violence in some communities is likely to lead to a communal sense of insecurity (Fowler et al., 2009).
Personality appears to be a key element because it is related to reactivity to emotional stimuli, individual differences in intensity to responses to emotional events and to the duration of emotional reactions (Garcia, 2010).
Several interpretations are possible regarding the relationship between personality variables and trauma exposure. Firstly, it is possible that exposure to trauma alters fundamental
aspects of personality or alternatively that these traits increase the likelihood of experiencing trauma (Lauterbach & Vrana, 2001). Secondly, it is also possible that there is a reciprocal relationship between personality traits and trauma exposure. Experiencing a traumatic event may produce elevated levels of these traits, which may, in turn, enhance the possibility of experiencing a subsequent traumatic event (Lauterbach & Vrana, 2001).
PERSONALITY AND TEMPERAMENT
Temperament can be described as “biologically rooted individual differences in behaviour tendencies” that initially shape the responses of youth to (stressful) environmental stimulation and therefore determine successful adaptation or maladaptation (Muris, Meesters & Blijlevens, 2007). McAdams and Olson (2009) define temperament as the “early-in-life framework” out of which personality traits develop (p.5.4).
Temperamental traits are thus basic psychological reactions based upon underlying biological processes and social interchanges. Temperament provides the initial state from which social dispositions and personality develop (De Pauw, Mervielde & Van Leeuwen, 2010; Rothbart, 2011). Temperament is in part shaped by heredity (Specht, Egloff & Schumkle, 2012). Although temperament also develops over time and presents new traits, strong temperamental characteristics can be seen in the new-born and measured in the fetus (Rothbart, 2007). Individual differences in temperament constitute the earliest expression of personality and the substrate from which later personality develops (Cohen & Cicchetti, 2006). Two major temperamental control systems are fear (inhibiting approach and expressive tendencies) and initiative (promoting approach and expressive tendencies) (Cohen & Cicchetti, 2006).
Rueda and Rothbart (2009) states that temperament has foundations in underlying neural networks and in infancy temperament may be equivalent to personality. Later in development personality takes on cognitions about the self, others and the social and physical world (along with attitudes, values and cognitive coping strategies).
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 MOTIVATION OF THE STUDY
1.2.1 Interpersonal violence
1.3 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY
1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
1.6 DEFINITIONS OF KEY CONCEPTS
1.6.1 Community related interpersonal violence
1.6.2 Personality
1.6.3 Expression of personality
1.6.4 Temperament
1.6.5 Adolescent
1.6.6 Neurobiology
1.6.7 Stress
1.6.8 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
1.6.9 Stress response
1.6.10 Acute stress disorder
1.6.11 Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
1.6.12 Coping
1.6.13 Coping style
1.7 RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION METHODS
1.8 DEVISIONS OF CHAPTERS
1.9 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW: THE ADOLESCENT AND EXPOSURE TO VIOLENCE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 THE ADOLESCENT
2.2.1 Definition of the Adolescent
2.2.2 Exposure to Interpersonal violence and the impact thereof
2.2.3 Impact of Interpersonal violence on specific domains
2.3 THEORETICAL EXPLANATIONS OF REACTIONS TO TRAUMA
2.3.1 Developmental theories
2.3.1.1Psychological view – Erik Erikson (1902 – 1980)
2.3.1.2 Cognitive view – Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980)
2.3.1.3 Ecological-transactional perspective
2.4 PHYSIOLOGICAL IMPACT OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE
2.4.1 Definition of Stress
2.4.2 Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
2.4.2.1The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenergic (HPA) axis
2.4.2.2 The Hipothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Stress Response
2.4.3 Vulnerabilities and stress in the brain
2.5 POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER
2.5.1 The definition of PTSD and traumatic events
2.5.2 Trauma and emotional reactivity to daily life stress
2.6 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW (II): PERSONALITY AND COPING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 PERSONALITY
3.3 EFFECTS OF VIOLENCE EXPOSURE ON ADOLESCENCE 3.4 PERSONALITY AND TEMPERAMENT
3.5 DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY OF THE ADOLESCENT AN THE IMPACT OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE
3.5.1 Developmental factors that must be taken in to account when evaluating the adolescent
3.6 MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY </strong
3.6.1 The Sixteen Personality factor Questionnaire (16 PF)
3.6.2 Research on personality and reaction to exposure of violence
3.7 COPING
3.7.1 The Kidcope Questionnaire
3.7.2 Coping and the adolescent
3.7.3 Coping and Personality
3.8 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER FOUR THE EMPIRICAL STUDY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 AIM OF THE STUDY
4.3 HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY
4.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
4.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.6 VALIDATING THE RESEARCH
4.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
4.8 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER FIVE FINDINGS OF THE EMPIRICAL STUDY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARTICIPANTS
5.3 HYPOTHESIS 1
5.4 HYPOTHESIS 2
5.5 HYPOTHESIS 3
5.6 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER SIX DEDUCTIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 1: DIFFERENCE IN PERSONALITY
6.3 FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 2: PERSONALITY AND PTSD SCORES
6.4 FINDINGS RELATED TO HYPOTHESIS 3: PERSONALITY AND COPING STRATEGIES
6.5 AGGREGATE FINDINGES
6.6 LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY
6.7 RECOMMENDATION
6.8 CONCLUSION
