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The various development factors influencing the emotional life of the adolescent
This section presents an overview of the development tasks involved in the physical, cognitive, social and emotional development of the adolescent girl. Hurlock (1980), Sebald (1992), as well as Rice and Dolgin (2005) suggest that the completion of these adolescent development tasks can enable individuals to function optimally as adults. The conflicting experiences, rooted in the development changes, may impart insight into the origins of the anger, angry feelings and aggression of the adolescent girl. The identification of potential incidents of conflict contributes to the purpose of this study, namely to prepare the adolescent female to be able to begin to identify,
express, understand and regulate her anger as part of her journey to maturity. Adolescence demarcate the age between childhood and adulthood. It may be divided into three stages: early adolescence from 12 to15 years of age, middle adolescence from 15 to18 years of age, and late adolescence from 18 to 25 years of age (Louw, Van Ede & Louw 2004:384). This study investigates the period between the end of early adolescence and the beginning of middle adolescence, in other
words, the group consisting of Grade Ten and Eleven learners. Dahl (2004:1) describes adolescence as a period rife with changes due to neurobiological development giving rise to pubertal upheaval; all this has a great influence on the motivational and emotional life of the adolescent.
The development tasks illustrate the psychological turmoil of change that may be experienced during this phase. Physical change is experienced through rapid physical growth and the hormonal shifts associated with puberty (Ganong 1995). Adolescents experience changes in sleep/arousal regulation, as well as variations in metabolism.
Adolescents of both genders experience social and emotional changes underpinned by neurological brain maturation (Giedd et al. 1999; Dahl 2004; Feinstein 2009).
Sweeney (2001:87) suggests that there may be an increase in social conflict with parents and other authority figures as an outcome of the maturation of adolescents’ cognitive growth. The potential for conflicting ideas, feelings, situations and relationships may be regarded as an intrinsic part of this period. Embedded in their inner conflict is the latent power of frustration, hostility, anger, angry feelings and aggressive behaviour. On the emotional level they may be moody, sensationseeking
and participate in high-risk behaviour (Dahl 2004:7). Pipher depicts this period of turmoil and change as follows:
Wholeness is shattered by the chaos of adolescence. Girls become fragmented, their selves split into mysterious contradictions. They are sensitive and tenderhearted, mean and competitive, superficial and idealistic. They are confident in the morning and overwhelmed with anxiety by nightfall. They rush through their days with wild energy and then collapse into lethargy. They try new roles every week (Pipher 1994:20).
Although Pipher’s research deals mostly with so-called dysfunctional teenage girls, her insight into this period of change and conflict supplies many guidelines for those who wish to understand adolescent anger. The next section deals with the development task of the adolescent female regarding her physical development and how it influences her emotional life.
The development task of the acceptance of changed physical identity
The first task of the adolescent girl is to accept a changed physical self, acknowledge her feminine gender role,78 and form her own physical and gender identity (Louw et al. 2004:388). During this phase rapid growth is stimulated by the growth hormone somatrophin (Ganong 1995). This growth hormone is stimulated by the release of sex hormones, such as oestrogen, and enhances cell generation. The internal reproductive organs reach maturity between the ages of ten and 15 years. These physical changes manifest as the maturity of the uterus, uterine tubes and ovaries, the start of the menstrual cycle, breast development and the growth of axillary and pubic hair (Waugh & Grant 2002: 444). Waugh and Grant (2002:445) further explain that there is “an increase in the rate of growth in height and widening of the pelvis […] there is an increase in the amount of fat deposited in the subcutaneous tissue,79 especially at the hips and breasts.”
The psychological implications of the changed physical and sexual self have a definite influence on self-acceptance and the forming of an individual identity. The most important psychological effect of biological incidences is the fact that “many cultures regard the appearance of menarche as a sign that the girl is now a ‘woman’ ” (Louw et al. 2004:392). This change is in itself a challenging identity shift for any girl between ten and 15 years of age and in some instances can bring about bodyhate disorders that present often in implosive anger in the form of depression, bulimia, cutting or anorexia.
The changes occurring in body height and weight influence the perceptions of attractiveness according to the norms of different societies. The modern view of an attractive female is usually associated with a slender body. Louw et al. (2004:395) state that from a certain cultural perspective, “(g)irls who mature late are usually perceived as physically attractive, lively and sociable and are generally more popular than those who mature early. They also seem to have a more positive body image than girls who mature early”. Mwamwenda (in Louw et al. 2004:396) contends that the opposite may be true in another cultural paradigm, for example, for African adolescents “early maturation could be an advantage … as it could bring them prestige and respect in the community”. Louw et al. (2004:393) posit that irrespective of culture, there is a certain awareness of weight increase in all cultures. They suggest that “(g)irls are usually concerned about their sudden weight increase, although cultural differences do occur” (Louw et al. 2004:393). This research study acknowledges that there are cultural differences amongst different social groups, but emphasizes that the groups in the empirical examples were homogeneous Chesney-Lind and Irwin (2008:58,78,155) quote research that strengthens the argument that globally the prevailing beauty standards are the Western81 slim body image, blonde hair and a light skin. Pipher (1995) confirms that girls strive to meet the standards created by the Western media of waif-like figures. In the South African context there is evidence that this trend is growing. Caucasian girls are highly susceptible to developing anorexia, but research confirms that there is an increasing proportion of young African, Indian and Coloured women who are prone to this disorder. The research indicates that middle class black African girls82 who attend private schools and black women who attend urban universities endeavour to follow the ultra thin body image propounded by the media (Kleyn & Clark 2008).
The media tend to frame girls’ problems in ways that increase the culpability for their own situation of being overweight, and at the same time heighten their intense desire for the perfect body image (Chesney-Lind & Irwin 2008:155). The ideal of the perfect ‘teen-image’ is communicated and when viewing her own situation, inner-conflict prevails (De Wet 2004:210). The ‘black image’ is unfortunately shaped in the media by the Western cultural fantasy of an ideal woman. In a South African AMPS SURVEY (2003:24), the following has been postulated regarding the power of advertising: “The need for economic recognition […] confirms the idea that consumption, identity and status are intimately connected and suggests that ’empowerment’ is measured largely in material terms symbolic of Westernisation”.
This means that adolescents are constantly made aware of limitations in the reality of their own lives which may lead to dissatisfaction with their own identity and status, and to frustration or even anger. The facilitator of an anger management programme in South Africa should be able to identify and acknowledge, or at least be aware of, the inner conflict of the various race and cultural groups in the country when presenting a programme on anger management.
In most literature about the adolescent female, the body-hate theme is proposed regarding the adolescent girl and her relationship with her physical self (Pipher 1994:166). The body-hate theme brings anger directly into play. Sweeney (2001:69) states that the levels of self-esteem of the adolescent girl drop significantly during this period. The prevalence of eating disorders, dissatisfaction with body image and unhealthy methods for weight-loss occur more frequently in girls than in boys, according to the Office of Research on Women’s health (ORWH 2008:2).
Sweeney (2001:74) states: “Specifically, physical appearance overly determines identity in adolescent girls leading to the forfeiture of a strong self and voice.” Sweeney (ibid) further suggests that there is a conflict between the image of perfection in the media and the reality of puberty. In instances where teenage girls experience this contradiction as overwhelming, they may cut their bodies or go on irrational diets (Chesney-Lind & Irwin 2008:55).
CHAPTER ONE: THE DRAMATIZATION OF POETRY AS A STRATEGY IN AN ANGER MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME FOR MIDDLE ADOLESCENT GIRLS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Research question, sub-questions and contextualization
1.2.1 Research question
1.2.2 Sub-questions
1.2.3 The contextualization of the study
1.3 Research design
1.3.1 Research question
1.3.2 Research objective: Exploration as research objective
1.3.3 The research design: Exploratory research
1.3.4 Research procedures and structure
1.4 Analysis of findings
1.5 Limitations of the study
1.6. Chapter outlines
1.6.1 Chapter One
1.6.2 Chapter Two
1.6.3 Chapter Three
1.6.4 Chapter Four
1.6.6 Chapter Six
1.6.7 Chapter Seven
1.6.8 Chapter Eight
1.6.9 Chapter Nine
CHAPTER TWO: EMOTIONS WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO THE EMOTION OF ANGER
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The neurological generation of emotions
2.2.1 The amygdala’s role in the generation of emotions
2.2.2 Brain regions involved in the generation of emotion
2.2.3 The hypothalamus’ role in the generation of emotions
2.2.4 The role of the visceral motor system and the somatic nervous systems in the generation of emotions
2.2.5 The elicitation of emotions through the endocrine system and how chronic stress produces negative emotions
2.2.6 Emotion generation through the memory system
2.2.7 The indirect generation of emotions by other emotions
2.3 The regulation of emotions
2.3.1 The regulation of emotions by higher mechanisms of the brain
2.3.2 The concept of brain plasticity and emotional regulation
2.4 The classification of emotions and the positioning of the emotion of anger and the variety of angry feelings
2.5 The emotion of ange
2.5.1 Anger: Two sides of one emotion
2.5.2 Expressions of anger and angry feelings
2.5.3 The social and neurological localization of anger
2.5.4 Defining the relation between anger and aggression
2.5.5 A discussion regarding a variety of anger styles
2.5.6 Anger and aggression intervention
2.6 Summary
CHAPTER THREE: THE EMOTIONAL LIFE OF THE ADOLESCENT GIRL
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The various development factors influencing the emotional life of the adolescent
3.3 The profile of adolescent female anger, angry feelings and aggression
3.4 The expression of anger during adolescence
3.5 Adolescent female anger in the South African context
3.6 Summary
CHAPTER FOUR: THE METHODOLOGY OF PROCESS DRAMA WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO THE CONVENTION OF DRAMATIZED POETRY
4.1 Introduction
4.2 A brief introduction to Applied Drama
4.3 Introduction to Drama in Education
4.4 The methodology of Process Drama: an introductory overview
4.5 A brief discussion of conventions of Process Drama applied in this study
4.6 Positioning the Process Drama convention of dramatized poetry
4.7 Motivating the use of dramatized poetry as a Process Drama convention
4.8 Summary
CHAPTER 5: HOW THE CONVENTIONS OF PROCESS DRAMA ADHERES TO THE PRINCIPLES OF BRAIN-BASED EDUCATION
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Introduction to brain-based education
5.3 The principles of brain-based education complying with Process Drama conventions and the development phase of the adolescent female learner
5.4 How the brain-based principles coincide with the methodology of Process Drama and the development of the adolescent female
CHAPTER SIX: EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE TRAINING FOR ADOLESCENT FEMALES
6.1 Introduction
6.2 An introduction to emotional intelligence and emotional competence skills
6.3 A discussion of the three main models of EI
6.4 Answering to the controversy surrounding the validity of EI
6.5 Emotional competency skills
6.6 Emotional competency skills can successfully be learned
6.7 The importance of emotional competency skills, such as anger management, to adolescent females
6.8 An introduction to the learning material for the anger management programme
6.9 Conclusion
6.10 Summary
CHAPTER SEVEN: WORKSHOP SESSIONS FOR THE ANGER MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Six session plans
7.3 Summary
CHAPTER EIGHT: ANGER MANAGEMENT PROCESS DRAMA WORKSHOPS FOR ADOLESCENT FEMALES: THREE CASE STUDIES
8.1 General introduction
8.2 A discussion on how the three workshops, with six sessions each, are aligned to the practical research environment
8.3 Session One
8.4 Session Two
8.5 Session Three
8.6 Session Four
8.7 Session Five
8.8 Session Six
8.9 Summary
CHAPTER 9: SUMMATION
9.1 Overview of the study
9.2 Discussion of the four sub-questions of the study
9.3 Sub-question Three
9.4 Sub-question Four
9.5 The limitations of this study and recommendations for future research
9.6 Conclusive statements regarding this study
APPENDIX
