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CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this research project is to understand how HODs at university construct their leadership roles. The nature of the research project is not to predict specific leadership behaviour and styles, but to explore and comprehend how HODs piece together their ideas about the phenomenon ‘leadership’ as part of their headship function.
The research methodology for this study is therefore based on the notions and ideas imbedded in constructivism and as a result this chapter focuses on an introduction to cognitive psychology, the main assumptions of cognitive psychology, the basic view of human nature from the Cognitive School of Psychology, the interpretation of some psychological concepts from a Cognitive School of Psychology perspective, the Personal Construct Theory and the Repertory Grid Technique.
The chapter also highlights the research process and methods that are employed during the empirical phase of this study.
AN OVERVIEW ON COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, PERSONAL CONSTRUCT PSYCHOLOGY AND CONSTRUCTIVISM
Cognitive psychology as a sub-field of psychology was established in the early 1960s (Meyer, Moore and Viljoen, 1988). This field of psychology focuses on conscious processes in answering certain questions about human functioning. Cognitive psychology is concerned with questions about how knowledge is acquired, retained, used and represented in an effort to understand how humans construe their worlds (Bergh and Theron, 2003).
Since cognition accordingly refers to the process of knowing, how knowledge is acquired, retained, used and represented, it covers the full range of mental functions as depicted in figure 5.
The first question about how knowledge is acquired involves two psychological processes, namely perception and learning (as illustrated in figure 5). The second question deals with how knowledge is retained and it therefore focuses on memory. The third question deals with how knowledge is used and processes such as thinking, reasoning, problem solving and decision-making are investigated. The fourth question is on how knowledge is represented internally. Two categories are identified: episodic memory (visual or auditory images) and semantic memory (abstract representation such as grammar and mathematics). In addition, Fransella and Thomas (1988) are of the opinion that in modern cognitive psychology all psychological phenomenon rest on symbolic representation in the mind, including not only perceiving, learning, thinking and remembering, but also desire and feelings as these are also connected to cognitions.
However, George Kelly, a psychologist and clinician considered as the founder of personal construct psychology, expressed the view that psychology as it was practised during the 1930s did not meet the objective of helping clients to understand themselves better. The problems Kelly identified with other schools of thoughts at the time can be grouped under the headings the numbers game, observer bias and the role of the expert (Stewart and Stewart, 1990).
The numbers game
Psychologists during the 1930s wanted psychology as a scientific field of interest to have the same respectability and methodology as the physical sciences. As a result, research endeavours were focussed on producing laws that could predict human behaviour. Research samples included hundreds of thousands of respondents and it was often the work of a lifetime to make any predictions about human behaviour. In addition, studies of masses of people did not assist a psychologist to make any predictions about a single client.
Kelly wished to make predictions about individual people so that the clinical problems of patients could be measured and re-measured in a therapeutic context. Kelly was of the opinion that what you cannot measure, you cannot control.
Observer bias
Consciously or unconsciously humans resemble what they already know. Our backgrounds, experiences and history give us a set of expectations about the world we live in. As a result we recognise familiar things and twist and turn less familiar ones until they match what we already know. Psychologists refer to this phenomenon as observer bias.
Kelly wanted a technique that could assist clinicians to interview patients in detail and that could extract a lot of detail about the person in a way that would reduce observer bias to a minimum. Kelly called this the repertory grid technique, which will be discussed in detail under point 6.6 of this chapter.
The role of the expert
Kelly was also concerned about the fact that patients became dependent on the psychologist or clinician to solve their problems. Kelly’s view was that if you want to learn what is wrong with someone ask them, and they will probably tell you. Kelly viewed people as intelligent and adult enough to know what there problems are and to take the responsibility for the solution. The role of the psychologist is to assist clients to confront problems they would prefer to avoid and to guide them to understand the problem at a deeper level.
Consequently, George Kelly developed a comprehensive meta-theory of cognition with the view to understand how people make sense of themselves and the world they live in. He presented his theory in: The Psychology of Personal Constructs. The primary focus of his theory is to develop an understanding of the way in which people interpret their life experiences (Ryle, 1975).
Constructivism however, is a theory within cognitive psychology that primarily focuses on knowledge and learning. It therefore covers most of the psychological processes (how knowledge is acquired, retained and used) that are depicted in figure 5. However, Hruby (2001) postulates that constructivism goes beyond the point of how the brain stores and retrieves information and has a stronger focus on how individuals make meaning of their experiences. Gergen (1999) furthermore defines constructivism as a view in which an individual mind constructs reality, but within a systematic relationship to the external world. It thus seems that constructivism is more involved with the process of learning than with what is learned (how the brain stores and retrieves information).
Constructivism stems from a long and respected tradition in cognitive psychology, especially in the writings of Dewey, Vygotski and Piaget. Constructivism explains both what ’knowing’ is and how one ‘comes to know’. Knowledge is regarded as temporary, developmental, non-objective, internally constructed and socially as well as culturally instituted (Fosnot, 1996). Regarding the nature of knowledge, constructivism assumes that knowledge is a hypothetical (i.e. precautionary) construction. It differs from the objectivist approach that considers knowledge as an internalised view of reality (Botella, 2007). Also, “the post-modern/constructivist era stresses the viability, as opposed to the validity of knowledge claims” (Raskin, 2002, p.2).
The subsequent section deals with the main assumptions of cognitive psychology and constructivism.
MAIN ASSUMPTIONS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND CONSTRUCTIVISM
The focus of this part of the literature study is to explore the assumptions embedded in cognitive psychology. This section not only highlights assumptions of cognitive psychology but it also looks at what constructivism is and how it is related to cognitive psychology.
As an introduction it is necessary to consider the following broad assumptions to which cognitive theorists subscribe (Bergh et al., 2003):
- To understand human behaviour, it is necessary to comprehend how information is processed.
- Life consists of a continuous process of making decisions, of which most are made consciously, although some decisions are made outside of awareness.
- Behaviour is intelligently guided as humans actively gather relevant information to make decisions. Information from the environment comes in through the senses and it is processed and coded for storage purposes in a systematic and hierarchical way for future use. Information is later decoded and united with other available information to guide action intelligently.
- Human behaviour is intrinsically goal directed or self-regulated (future orientated). People monitor their progress in a desired direction, called self-regulation.
- People organise information in their minds in an effort to make sense of the world they life in. ’Schemata’ or cognitive structures describe how people perceive, organise and interpret information about themselves, other people, events and objects.
With regards to constructivism there are slight, but unique differences between constructivism and constructionism. The following descriptions are presented (Hruby, 2001):
Constructivism is considered as a theory (or sets of theory) that focuses on how individuals structure knowledge, rather than receive it. Constructivism is the psychological description of knowledge that deals with knowledge formulation in the head of individuals. Individuals are continuously involved in constructing personal meaning and understanding from their life experiences.
Executive summary
List of Tables
List of Figures
Appendices
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND AND SCIENTIFIC ORIENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1.5 RESEARCH DOMAIN
1.6 RESEARCH DESIGN
1.7 CHAPTER LAYOUT
1.8 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 2: AN OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF UNIVERSITIES AND THE UNIVERSITY CONTEXT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 AN OVERVIEW ON THE HISTORY OF UNIVERSITIES, ACADEMIC DEPARTMENTS AND HEADS OF DEPARTMENT
2.3 THE ROLE OF UNIVERSITIES IN THE 21ST CENTURY
2.4 THE PURPOSE, GOALS AND FUNCTIONING OF UNIVERSITIES
2.5 LEADERSHIP CHALLENGES FACING UNIVERSITIES
2.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3: THE GENERAL ROLE HEADS OF ACADEMIC DEPARTMENTS (HODs) FULFIL AT UNIVERSITIES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 ROLES OF HODs IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF TERTIARY EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
3.3 ASPECTS AND DIMENSIONS IMBEDDED IN THE HOD’s ROLE AND POSITION AT UNIVERSITIES
3.4 STAKEHOLDER EXPECTATIONS
3.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4: THE LEADERSHIP ROLE OF HODs AT UNIVERSITIES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 GENERAL DEFINITION/S OF LEADERSHIP
4.3 GENERAL LEADERSHIP THEORIES
4.4 LEADERSHIP AT UNIVERSITIES AND ACADEMIC DEPARTMENTS
4.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5: HOD’s EXPERIENCES IN THEIR LEADERSHIP ROLE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 TRANSITIONS TO THE HOD POSITION
5.3 TYPES OF HODs AT UNIVERSITIES
5.4 HOD’s TIME UTILISATION
5.5 DILEMMAS, PROBLEMS, CONFLICTS AND STRESSORS HODs EXPERIENCE WITH THEIR LEADERSHIP ROLES
5.6 WHAT HODs CONSIDER BEING IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF THEIR POSITION, WHAT THEY ENJOY AND DON’T ENJOY OF THEIR HEADSHIP ROLE
5.7 THE IMPACT OF HEADSHIP ON HODs’ ACADEMIC ACTIVITIES
5.8 REWARDS AND TRADE-OFFS FOR HODs
5.9 WHAT CAN BE DONE TO ENSURE HODs ARE EFFECTIVE IN THEIR HEADSHIP AND LEADERSHIP ROLES?
5.10 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 AN OVERVIEW ON COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, PERSONAL CONSTRUCT PSYCHOLOGY AND CONSTRUCTIVISM
6.3 MAIN ASSUMPTIONS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND CONSTRUCTIVISM
6.4 THE PERSON AS A SCIENTIST: A BASIC VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE FROM THE COGNITIVE SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY
6.5 THE INTERPRETATION OF SOME PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTS FROM THE COGNITIVE SCHOOL OF THOUGHT
6.6 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY’S VIEWS ON KNOWLEDGE
6.7 PERSONAL CONSTRUCT PSYCHOLOGY THEORY (PCP)
6.8 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
6.9 RESEARCH PROCESS
6.10 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7: RESEARCH DATA, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF HODs’ DATA
7.3 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS
7.4 INTEGRATING THE RESEARCH RESULTS
7.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 8: LITERATURE AND EMPIRICAL OVERVIEWS, MAIN FINDINGS, LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 COMPARING THE LITERATURE WITH THE RESULTS
8.3 EMPIRICAL OVERVIEW
8.4 MAIN FINDINGS
8.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT STUDY
8.6 RECOMMENDATIONS
8.7 SUMMARY
LIST OF REFERENCES
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THE LEADERSHIP ROLE OF HEAD OF DEPARTMENT AT UNIVERSITY
