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Chapter 2 Literature review on the contribution of education to learners’ awareness of hazards and disasters
Introduction
The purpose of Chapter two is to review how literature addresses the question of how education, in particular curriculum and instructional design, contributes to learners‘ awareness of hazards and resilience to disasters. The chapter starts with an overview of what disasters are experienced globally and how education contributes to communities being aware of such disasters. The chapter further evaluates how scholars have addressed the question of educational contribution to disaster awareness and identifies core concepts emanating from the literature review to guide the collection of empirical data. The chapter also addresses the conceptual framework that was used to develop the questions for interviews and questionnaires.
As a way of introduction to the conceptual framework discussed in 1.8, Frost-Killian‘s (2008:28) views serve as a point of departure and provide a rationale to investigate the role of education in hazards and disaster awareness raising as reflected below.
As we go about our daily business, the solid Earth seems safe enough, but there’s far more going on beneath the surface than meets the eye. Things can change in a devastating flash through floods, earthquakes and other disasters that displace or kill the whole communities of people. The more we understand the natural forces that control the familiar landscapes of water, rocks and soils the better we can calculate – and minimise – the risks to people and property.
Overview of disasters
Alexander (1997:289) reviewed disaster literature for two decades and concluded that there is no agreement in the literature on the definition of disasters even though there is consensus on elements that could be used to define disaster, such as number of deaths, value of damage and loss, impact upon the social system and geophysical variables. Shaluf (2007:687) maintains that disasters have been a subject of research and a source of concern for academics, governments and independent agencies, and classifies disasters into three broad categories, the natural, human-induced and hybrid. Alexander (1997:290) defines disaster as a rapid, sustained or profound impact of the geophysical world upon human lives and socio-economic means of support. Although there is no agreement among scholars on the concept disaster, based on a review of disaster literature, one could settle on the definition as suggested by Paton (2003:210), Paton and Johnston (2001:270) and Alexander (1997:289) that relates disasters to those events that displace the structural, economic, organisational, cultural and spiritual wellbeing of communities by destroying their means of existence. Disasters could be either human-induced or natural occurrences; disasters are natural if they just happen without being induced by humans like tsunamis, volcanoes, earthquakes, storms and floods.
A related concept, hazards, also has been a subject of scholarly debate and is closely related to the concept of disaster as the two go hand in hand and are used as such in this study. Sabates-Wheeler, Devereux, Mitchell, Tanner, Davies and Leavy (2008:11) define hazards as events which, if they materialise, can adversely affect the community‘s well-being. The argument emanating from this definition of hazards is that the difference between a disaster and a hazard is that communities can learn to live with the latter as long as they are well prepared and are able to prevent it from resulting in loss of lives and properties. The hazard becomes a disaster only if it displaces the well-being of communities and destroys their means of existence.
Shaluf (2007:687) identified a disaster tree with three categories of disasters, natural, human-induced and hybrid which he expanded as indicated in Figure 2.1 below. The disaster tree is important because it gives an overview of disasters that are prevalent across the globe and in this study it will be reviewed against disasters that are prevalent in South Africa.
Figure 2.1 provides crucial information that gives an overview of disasters that have affected the global community over time and serves as a point of departure; it provided a holistic picture of disasters affecting the global community and disasters that are particular to South Africa. A close scrutiny of Figure 2.1, shows that Shaluf (2007:701) has divided the types of disaster into categories and sub-categories. For example in the first category titled Natural disasters there are four sub-categories named natural phenomena beneath the earth‘s surface, such as earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruption, the natural phenomena on the earth‘s surface, such as landslides and avalanches. Shaluf (2007:701) provides an overview of disasters that are affecting the global communities.
The last two sub-categories of meteorological and biological disasters are prevalent in South Africa and the most common ones include windstorms, hailstorms, floods and droughts. Biological disasters such as infestations and epidemics are prevalent as well. Epidemics such as malaria cited by Hemingway (2004:475) and Berriman (2004:452), tuberculosis cited by Van Pitius, Warren and Van Helden (2004:465), Kana and Mizrahi (2005:7) and Boshoff, Barry III and Mizrahi (2004:471) and HIV/AIDS cited by Martin and Williamson (2004:479), Hargrove (2008:53), Gregson, Waddel and Chandiwana (2001:467) and Martin (2005) are being regarded as disasters in Africa. While I indicated that learners should be taught about disasters such as earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis because they might encounter them in the future, my emphasis is that biological and socio-technical disasters should be given first priority in the curriculum and instructional design.
The second category of human-induced disasters is divided into socio-technical disasters and warfare. The sub-categories for socio-technical disasters include technological disasters such as fires, gas leakages, toxic releases, and the last sub-categories include transport disasters, public places failures and production failures. Schneider (2000:99) maintains that industrial and workplace disasters are commonplace and include toxic substances, flammable materials, explosive materials, excessive noise, biologically active materials, heat or cold stress. Mulegeta, Ayonghe, Daby, Dube, Gudyanga, Lucio and Durrheim (2007:12) identified human-induced disasters such as air and water pollution, gas flaring and small scale mining, toxic waste disposal, land degradation, conflict related hazards and climate change as the most prevalent disasters within sub-Saharan Africa. These disasters can occur at any-time and anywhere which makes them critical as part of this study.
Shaluf (2007:699) adds conflict-related disasters relating to refugees and asylum seekers that easily stimulate xenophobia attacks. The idea of social conflict as a disaster is supported by Trim (2004:222) who maintains that there is an issue of resentment and ill feeling towards the group of displaced people from citizens of the country in which they seek shelter. South Africa experienced xenophobic attacks in 2008 where people from neighbouring countries were attacked and their property burned or stolen. Now and then there are reports of another possible outbreak. It is therefore important for the South Africa national curriculum to focus on ways that can reduce the risk of social conflicts.
From watching news on national television, it is obvious that the global community is bombarded with news about the outbreak of disasters of some type almost every month. A search on different internet sites such as Infoplease, National Disaster Management Centre website and Prevention Web reveals that more than one major disaster is reported per month. The Infoplease Online Media have consolidated a list of disasters from January to July 2008 as depicted in Figure 2.2. A glance at the different types of disasters listed in Figure 2.2 makes one wonder what qualifies an event as disaster. This dilemma confirms Alexander‘s (1997:289) observation that there is no agreement on the definition of disasters. The dilemma comes from the variety of catastrophic events listed in the Figure 2.2 and there has been constant debate in the South African media about when to declare events such as wild fires, floods, crime, HIV/AIDS and the June 2008 xenophobic attack as disasters.
According to Pelling and Uitto (2001:60) the global community has experienced devastating effects from disasters ranging from earthquakes, heat waves, floods, hurricanes, droughts and landslides to epidemics. Rose (2004:307) cautions that recent events have shown how vulnerable countries at all levels of development are to disasters while Mgquba and Vogel (2004:30) maintain that future changes in climate as well as changing social conditions, including the role of HIV/AIDS, governance and conflict, pose huge challenges for society at large. Reich (2006:794) argues that the disaster problem is not confined locally but it is an international phenomenon, especially considering the New York World Trade Centre destruction, the Sumatran tsunami tragedy, hurricane Katrina, war, and infectious diseases tragedies that continue to appear on the world stages. Bull-Kamanga, Diagne, Lavell, Leon, Lerise, MaGregor, Maskrey, Meshack, Pelling, Reid, Satterthwait, Songsore, Westgate and Yitambe (2003:193) maintain that the urban population face a wide range of risks from everyday hazards to health risks posed by poor living conditions to large scale disasters that can result in heavy loss of life and property.
The UNDP (2004) reported that owing to human activities, the frequency, extent and severity of hydro-meteorological hazards is increasing and climatologists predict a further increase due to global change and this will have a significant impact on poorer communities. Concerns about the increase in climate change, technological advancements, manipulation of biological and chemical agents, as well as fears about nuclear accidents, lead to a view that the risk of a large scale disaster is looming globally.
UNDP (2004) distinguishes between hydro-meteorological/geological hazards, which include floods, droughts, wildfires, storms, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions as well as landslides, and biological hazards which arise from epidemics (HIV/AIDS, TB, Ebola, bird flu, foot and mouth disease, etc.) or from other biological sources such as pest swarms. Pelling (2003:21) identified two types of disaster, the catastrophic and chronic disaster. The characteristics of catastrophic are the same as hydro-meteorological while those of the chronic are similar to biological disasters associated with poor sanitation, unfit housing and polluted air.
While it is clear from Figure 2.1 that there are many disasters ranging from natural hazards and human-induced disasters to conflict related disasters, this study focused on finding out whether educators are aware that their area could be affected by disasters and identifying types of disasters that are prevalent in South Africa through reviewing the database of the National Disaster Management Centre (NDMC), scholars‘ writing about disasters in South Africa and other disaster related documentations.
If the South African situation is considered, some of the classifications as explained in the Shaluf disaster tree are relevant, while some are not. For example, from the natural disaster cluster South Africa has been affected to a lesser extent by natural phenomena beneath the earth‘s surface such as earthquakes and tsunamis. This notion is supported by Meiklejohn and Sumner (2005:11) who maintain that South Africa has a relatively steep coast and should not experience as much devastation as was recorded in Indonesia. However, the Department of Provincial Affairs and Constitutional Development (1998) in the Green Paper on Disaster Management of 1998 recorded earthquakes as one of disasters afflicting the country. Not much research on South African vulnerability to earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions has been reported in the literature even though these disasters are part of the grade 7 Social Science learning outcomes. Chris Hartnady (2010) however, gives a different perspective on earthquakes by reporting the following in Science in Africa’s online magazine.
Acknowledgements
Personal Declarations
Ethics Clearance
Statement of the editor
Abstract
Concepts
Figures, Tables and Pictures
Acronyms
Chapter 1: The need for enhancing learners’ knowledge and skills for responding to hazards and disasters
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background to the study
1.3 Problem statement
1.4 The main research question and secondary research questions
1.5 Rationale for the study
1.6 Significance of the study
1.7 Aim and objectives of the study
1.8 Conceptual framework guiding the empirical data collection for the study
1.9 Research design and methodology
1.10 Conclusion
Chapter 2: Literature review on the contribution of education to learners’ awareness of hazards and disasters
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Overview of disasters
2.3 The conceptual framework elements guiding the investigation
2.4 The need for empirical data to address the questions arising from literature study
2.5 Summary of key issues emanating from the literature study
2.6 Conclusion
Chapter 3: Research approach, strategies and methods applied during the course of the investigation
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed method research
3.3 Data collection through documents review, questionnaires and interviews
3.4 The research sample that applies to this investigation
3.5 Data analysis approach applied in this study
3.6 Measures to address validity and reliability of the study
3.7 Research limitations for the study
3.8 Conclusion
Chapter 4: Analysis and discussions of the results of the investigation
4.1 Introduction
4.2 An analysis of data collected to address sub-question 1: What disasters are prevalent in South Africa?
4.3 An analysis of data collected to determine the extent of South African communities’ vulnerability to disasters
4.4 An analysis of data collected to determine how the national curriculum caters for the teaching of hazards and disasters
4.5 An analysis of data collected to determine the extent to which integrated teaching and indigenous knowledge contribute to learners’ awareness and resilience to disasters
4.6 Empirical data collected to identify other teaching strategies that could enhance learners’ awareness of hazards and disasters
4.7 Discussions on whether the empirical data presented has provided conclusive evidence to determine how education contributes to learners’ awareness of hazards and disasters
4.8 Triangulation of empirical and literature data collected to determine whether education contributes to learners’ awareness of hazards and resilience to disasters
4.9 Conclusion on the empirical data collection to determine whether education contributes to learner awareness of hazards and disasters
Chapter 5: Findings, recommendations and implications of the investigation on learners’ awareness of hazards and disasters
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Summary of the problems that led to the study
5.3 Summary of the research question and sub-questions
5.4 Summary of the aim and objectives of the study
5.5 Findings of the literature review
5.6 Findings of the empirical investigation
5.7 Significance of this study to the South African education system
5.8 Other insights emerging from the study
5.9 Recommendations and implications
5.10 Implications of the study on enhancing learners’ awareness of hazards and disasters
5.11 Shortcomings and limitations of the investigation
5.12 Suggestions for further research
5.13 Summary of the investigations
5.14 Conclusion
List of references
Appendix
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