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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter begins with a discussion of ICT for development, followed by an overview of technology transfer to undeveloped environments. The chapter then examines barriers to technology transfer in developing areas and discusses ICT centres with particular attention to sustainability, by referring to case studies and lessons learned in ICT centre deployment. The chapter concludes with a description of a model of ICT implementation which will be used in this study to design an appropriate approach for ICT centre deployment.
ICT for development
Development is a widely participatory process of social change in a society, intended to bring about both social and economic advancement, including greater equality, freedom, and other valued qualities, for the majority of the people through their gaining greater control over their environment (Bandura, 1998). There exists a realisation that access to technology is a development imperative. Making use of new communication technologies such as the Internet is understood to represent a development communication tool that can contribute to higher levels of social and economic improvement in developing countries by providing access to information, and that access to the Internet and information and the spread of this access can provide developing economies to reap the benefits of global networking (Mansell, 2004).
Technology has the potential for communities to improve their lives through access to applications and digital information resources. The role of information in development is considered critical for knowledge building and informed decision making and for developing economies to be able to become part of the global economy (Melody, 2005) .
In addition, the adoption of technology may allow developing economies to facilitate closer integration of the value-added chain through the reduction of costs for services and products and the choice of suppliers across boundaries albeit physical or international (Mansell, 2004). ICT harnessed in the appropriate manner has the potential and ability to create opportunities for those economies to partake in the global economy. There is evidence to suggest that a strong correlation exists between economic growth and poverty reduction, and that through the promotion of the exchange of information, ICT has the potential to contribute significantly to development in rural areas (Srinivasan, 2001).
In developing economies it has been shown that ICT has had a great impact on decision- making processes, markets and local empowerment and has shown significant potential for social and economic development (Mahmood, 2005). ICTs can be used for the alleviation of poverty, which in turn creates a conducive environment for social development. Research has also shown that ICT has the potential to contribute to aspects such as economic sustainability and social upliftment (Conradie, 1998 & Benjamin, 2000). ICT is also considered as a way of increasing integration of ideas, information and technology, which is especially important in the stimulation of economic growth (Ikeme, 2002; Reich, 1991; Annan, 2000).
Rural areas in particular need ICT in an attempt to narrow the information gap between the communities in the urban areas and the communities in the rural areas. The World Summit on the Information Society in 2003 strongly recommended that governments and other stakeholders make provision for access to information in those areas which previously never had the means to access information. This is supported by an increasing body of evidence which indicates that ICT is effective and commercially viable even in poor rural areas, if properly managed. Bangladesh, India, Indonesia and Senegal are examples of countries where ICT has been used successfully for improving the social and economic status of the regions where ICT was deployed (Ernberg, 1998b). Ernberg (1998b) argues that the provision of more advanced information and communications services which meet the needs of people in rural areas, could certainly make a significant difference, provided that people are made aware of the potential benefits and that the services can be provided at an affordable cost.
The growing recognition of the impact ITC has on the creation of employment opportunities and income generation in developing communities is critical to the continued momentum for ICT deployment in developing countries and communities (Daniels, 1999). Information and information handling has been shown as essential in micro-enterprises in Kenya, especially as many of these small enterprises were established in rural areas and previously did not have access to ICT and information. Advances in ICT, specifically the Internet and the World Wide Web, make possible a radically different type of future society, particularly in developing countries. The potential for this type of communication in developing areas has only begun to be realised, especially as the potential of the Internet and the World Wide Web enables disadvantaged people to communicate with societal decision-makers (Rogers, 2000).
Communities can therefore be empowered to determine their own futures through developing self-efficacy and collective efficacy as communities gain access to accurate information about social problems and their possible solutions (Bandura, 1998). It is becoming increasingly clear that there is a critical need for information and also for all to become part of the information society.
The process through which the new communication technologies are used as a means for furthering development towards an information society is called informatisation (Rogers, 2000; Singhal & Rogers, 2001). Informatisation in Southern India, for example, has shown an improvement in development in the last several years by allowing communities access to both information and knowledge (Singhal & Rogers, 2001).
Although there is evidence that ICT has been effective, there is also concern expressed by some that that although there have been many attempts to implement IT solutions in rural areas around the world, there is very little evidence to suggest that the objectives of these attempts have been realised (Lanvin, 2003; Heeks, 2002; Menou, 1995; Berg, 2003).
Despite numerous attempts to harness ICT in developing areas for development and growth, there is still a significant gap between developed economies and developing economies for those that need access to information (Singh, 2002). Singh (2002) attributes the existence of this huge gap to factors such as legacy systems, poverty, a lack of infrastructure and the high costs of connectivity. Attempts at trying to deploy access to information in developing areas are often unsuccessful, as consideration has not been given to factors which are necessary to support universal access to information. For example, some governments in developing countries were determined to provide universal access to ICT services, often forgetting their own incapability to provide national access to basic services as well as universal services. (Lanvin, 2003; Heeks, 2002; Menou, 1995). Although the use of technology such as the Internet and cellular phones has increased the freedom to communicate, sub-Saharan Africa has the least developed telecommunications infrastructure in the world, with only 0,4 per cent of the world’s telephone lines (Nxasana, 2002).
While appreciation for the value of Information Technology (IT) is clear (Nedtel, 2003; Castells, 2001; Conradie, 1998; Benjamin, 2000), the effective deployment of IT should be considered as key in realising the potential of IT and development (Snyman & Snyman, 2001).
Effective deployment of IT relies on the understanding of local conditions which could impact on its successful deployment in developing economies. A lack of understanding of local conditions can result in obstacles stand in the way of developing countries being able to take part in the information society, thus negating the potential of technology as a tool for development (Sebusang & Masupe, 2005). Obstacles to IT deployment and, more importantly, the sustained use and success of IT, are often symptoms of an initial lack of understanding of local conditions, resulting in total failure of IT projects. It appears that many of the mistakes such as ignoring the local conditions and specific community needs were being repeated by organisations attempting to improve the economic situation of developing areas through technology transfer (Benjamin, 2003; Berg, 2003). This is a situation that developing countries, especially, cannot afford (SAIDE, 1999). It would seem that many failures have occurred because of inadequate planning.
There appears to be little evidence of a thorough evaluation of the failures, in so doing depriving others of insights into practices to be avoided (Mphahlele & Maepa, 2003; Adler & Bartholomew, 1992). The same approach to IT implementation is used time and again in developing areas resulting in the recipients of IT not being able to realise the intended benefits of IT deployment (Butcher, 1995; Van Dijk, 1997). The views of Butcher and Van Dijk are supported by others who maintain that there is also evidence to suggest that IT deployment in developing countries is a highly uneven process which has resulted in varying degrees of success between countries (Davies, 2001; Roman & Blatmann, 2002). This fact could suggest that the recipients of the technology between these countries also vary in terms of needs and local conditions. There are those who advocate the importance of adapting the way in which ICTs are deployed in developing countries and even in communities in the same countries. (Refer to the section 2.7 , page 49 on lessons learned). Based on the poor record of attempts to implement technology in developing countries, it seems that there is no ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach and it is therefore important to keep in mind that not every attempt to implement an ICT project needs to use the same plan used in a previous attempt. Those responsible for the deployment of ICT in developing countries need to decide which methods and approaches are going to be used.
Nevertheless, the potential of ICT for development is still considered one of the most effective ways for facilitating development in developing countries, and is based on the transformation from manual labour to automation of tasks through the advances made in technology (Bell, 2002). Bell bases his theory on the move from a goods producing society to a service-driven society. Bell argues that there is a growing need for information in most modern occupations (Webster, 1995). While there is some criticism of Bell’s work, there is evidence to support Bell’s suggestion that technology and the influence that technology has on social aspects, especially in a developing economy (Duff, 1998). There is strong evidence that technology needs to be viewed in isolation when used for development and, as Bell – like many others – suggests, that there is a need to place more emphasis on other issues critical to successful ICT deployment in developing countries. Unless addressed, these issues can become obstacles to effective deployment of ICT. It is obvious that many developing countries which focus purely on technology for development whilst ignoring other factors like that of technology transfer, are often characterised by having insurmountable obstacles to ICT implementation. This in turn results in these developing countries maintaining the lag between developing countries and developed countries.
The lag in developing countries partaking in the globalisation process over the years has been largely due to attempts to overcome obstacles such as sparse population densities and high infrastructure costs. It is argued, however, that with the emergence of new technologies, and especially through the implementation of ICT centres, the lag experienced by developing countries can be addressed (Figueres, 2003). ICT centres in developing economies have shown that they facilitate improvements in productivity, as they provide access to knowledge and information which are key to productivity (Castells, 2001). Castells (2001) maintains that there is evidence to suggest that that the lag between developing countries and developed countries, particularly in income and poverty, are decreasing and that access to ICT has contributed to this turnaround.
The argument for using ICT in development revolves around the enabling effect of ICT. ICT has the potential to provide access to knowledge and information, which are key to productivity and improvements in productivity (Castells, 2001). ICT also increases the possibilities for action between and among people in situations where latitudinal and longitudinal location seems immaterial to the social activity at hand (Scheuerman, 1996). In other words, barriers to development resulting from location, especially between developing and developed countries, can be overcome through the use of technology
What remains for effective deployment of technology is an integrated approach to the use of ICT in development (Figueres, 2003). The integrated approach used for the transfer of technology depends on the form in which the technology is to be transferred from developed countries to developing countries. Technology can be transferred in a purely informational form, known as disembodied technology transfer, or, alternatively in an embodied format which refers to technology in the form of a product or machine, together with the ability to use the product or machine (Keller & Chinta, 1990). Keller and Chinta (1990) maintain that the approach and form of technology which is transferred is critical in determining the effectiveness of the technology transfer. The recipient of the technology must have the means to be able to make the most of the technology. Herein lies the key for the effective transfer of technology through the recipient ability of being able to harness technology effectively (Berg, 1993). This dissertation attempts to provide evidence that for technology transfer to be effective, the ability to harness technology in developing areas should ideally be the main focus.
Harnessing ICT for development
It should be clear that technology alone cannot be seen as the catalyst for development but should be transferred in the correct manner in order to be effective. Webster maintains that there are five factors, (listed below), that could be considered as the criteria for influencing the effectiveness of ICT and its impact on development (Webster, 1995):
- Technological
- Economic
- Occupational
- Spatial (information networks)
- Cultural
The technological factor deals with the innovation of affordable information technology and the speed at which improvements are made which affect and influence people (Wigell- Ryynänen, 2002). As technology is continually advancing, improvements not only result in the increased affordability and impact of the technology, but also in ease of use. In other words, later technologies are becoming more user friendly and require less sophistication for effective use (Dagron, 2001). This means that communities in disadvantaged areas are therefore more able to use and harness the potential of the technology provided that they have been trained in the use of it. There is no longer a need for highly skilled personnel to operate and maintain ICT, for with the rate at which technology improves, so does the ease of use. For this reason it becomes increasingly viable to deploy technology in remote areas as the need for access to skills normally found in cities, is significantly reduced.
The economic factor is a measurement of the impact that ICT has on an economy (Adam & Wood, 1999). In the case of Nigeria, for example, information and communication technologies have opened up new opportunities for the Nigerian print media to improve on their products and services through marketing and dissemination of information to customers (Ehikhamenor, 2002). Quantifying the improvement resulting from technology is critical for those who have to justify the technology transfer to developing areas. This is particularly important as in some instances the needs of the community are constantly being assessed and then aligned with solutions to address these changing needs (Clark, 2002). Therefore, technology underpins the mechanism which supports the solutions that satisfy the dynamic nature of the changing needs. Technology, is not considered as a means to an end, but rather as a way in which an idea can be applied to address a need.
The occupation factor can best be described as a change in the way in which people work. People have moved towards occupations that require information to carry out their tasks (Veskimae, 2002). Linked to the previous factor, the occupation factor entrenches the notion of technology as an enabler. Veskimae bases this assertion on the work done by Porat (1978), who developed what has become a typology to occupations that are primarily engaged in the production, processing or distribution of information. The occupation factor is a good example of the move from manual tasks requiring little information to tasks which are reliant on the ease of access of information. Castells contends that the effectiveness of the technological information revolution is the driving force behind the success of all other major transformations, resulting in the industrial society being replaced by the Information Society. (Naisbitt & Abudene, 1986). For this reason alone, ICT centres, if used effectively on a sustainable basis, should be seen as one of the most effective ways of allowing communities in general to develop their respective local economies.
The spatial factor must be considered in terms of time and space. The physical location is no longer a barrier to access to information; through the use of remote access and networks information can be accessed at any time (Goddard, 1995). Historically, one of the major reasons for developing economies being isolated from the developed world was due to the physical location of the developing economy. This is no longer a barrier for these previously isolated economies, and the barriers to development resulting from location can be relatively easily addressed through communication technologies such as the Internet and other communication technologies (Scheuerman, 1996). Coupled to the ability to access information in remote areas is the added advantage for communities or individuals in being able to access information at will. Previous constraints resulting from normal working days or business hours do not determine when information can be accessed. Provided the means of information access is flexible in terms of people’s needs, the user can work and make use of ICT when it is most convenient.
Finally, the social factor is a result of a media-filled society such as television, radio, newspapers and the Internet which enables the dissemination of information mainly along what Poster (1995) refers to as the information superhighway. The rate of adoption of the Internet and the World Wide Web may represent the fastest diffusion of any innovation in the history of humankind. In around 1991 the rate of adoption of the Internet passed the « critical mass », meaning that an adequate number of adopters had occurred for further diffusion to become self-sustaining. Thereafter, increasing millions of new users have adopted the Internet each year.
Although developing countries may not share the same rate of absorption as in developed countries, the principle certainly still applies to the rate of Internet adoption in developing areas (Rogers, 2001). This research focuses mainly on ICT centres and the centres’ menu of services and it is important to appreciate the role of alternative means of communication other than the Internet. For example, with the advent of cell phones, small messaging services (SMS) has indeed made the cell phone an effective and affordable means of communication.
It is therefore clear that Webster’s five factors have a significant influence on the potential and flexibility of ICT adoption. These factors should be considered when transferring technologies to developing countries, and that technology alone must be seen as an enabler only when transferred with due consideration given to these factors.
CHAPTER ONE -Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Research problem
1.2.1 Main objective of research
1.2.2 Research objective
1.2.3 Sub-aims
1.3 Demarcation of research
1.3.1 Research location
1.3.2 The role of the researcher within TSA and the ICT centers
1.4 Definitions of terms
1.4.1 ICT centers
1.4.2 Information Technology
1.4.3 Landscape audit
1.4.4 Abbreviations used throughout the text
1.5 Value of the research
1.6 Literature review
1.7 Research approach
1.7.1 Action research
1.7.2 Use of case studies
1.7.3 Data collection methods
1.7.4 Sampling
1.8 Overview of dissertation
1.8.1 Chapter one – Introduction
1.8.2 Chapter two – Literature review
1.8.3 Chapter three – Research methodology
1.8.4 Chapter four – Case studies
1.8.5 Chapter five – Findings and Discussions
1.8.6 Chapter six – Summary and Conclusions
1.8.7 Chapter seven – Recommendations
1.9 Summary
CHAPTER TWO – Literature review
2.1 Introduction
2.2 ICT for Development
2.2.1 Harnessing ICT for development
2.3 Technology transfer
2.4 Barriers to technology transfer
2.4.1 Environmental factors
2.4.1.1 Economy and competition
2.4.1.2 Legislation and policies
2.4.1.3 Physical considerations
2.4.2 Organisational factors
2.4.2.1 Cultural factors
2.4.2.2 Community involvement
2.4.2.3 Project management
2.5 Measuring the effectiveness of technology transfer
2.6 ICT centres
2.6.1 ICT Sustainability
2.6.2 ICT Centre management
2.7 Lessons learned in ICT centre deployment
2.8 An approach for ICT centre deployment
2.9 Conclusion
CHAPTER THREE – Research Design
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research strategy
3.3 Research approach
3.3.1 Action research
3.3.2 Methods of data collection
3.3.2.1 Participant observation
3.3.2.2 Interviews
3.3.2.3 Document analysis
3.4 Case studies
3.5 Research instrument
3.5.1 Conceptualisation phase
3.5.1.1 Site selection
3.5.1.2 Role players
3.5.1.3 Community needs
3.5.1.4 Business plan
3.5.2 Implementation phase
3.5.2.1 Selection of centre staff
3.5.2.2 Implementation process
3.5.2.3 IT suppliers and IT support
3.5.2.4 Identification of community leaders
3.5.2.5 Other support structures
3.5.3 Evaluation and adjustment phase
3.5.3.1 Centre usage
3.5.3.2 Centre reliability
.5.3.3 Assessment of user perceptions of centre
3.5.3.4 Income generation and expenditure
3.5.4 Sustainability
3.6 Conclusion
CHAPTER FOUR – Case Studies
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The role of TSA in the implementation of the ICT centers
4.3 Information and Communication Technology Centre one – ICT1
4.4 Information and Communication Technology Centre two –ICT2
4.5 Information and Communication Technology Centre three – ICT3
4.6 Information and Communication Technology Centre four –ICT4
4.7 Information and Communication Technology Centre five – ICT5
4.8 Information and Communication Technology Centre six –ICT6
4.9 Conclusion
CHAPTER FIVE – Findings and Discussions
5.1 Introduction
5.2 ICT1
5.3 ICT2
5.4 ICT3
5.5 ICT4
5.6 ICT5
5.7 ICT6
5.8 Overall conclusions for all six ICT centers studied
5.9 Conclusion
CHAPTER SIX – Summary and Conclusions
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Addressing the research question and research sub-aims
6.3 Conclusion
CHAPTER SEVEN – Recommendations
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The recommended model
7.3 Limitations of the research
7.4 Opportunities for further research
7.5 Conclusion
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