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Ancient attitudes to the fetus

As discussed above, the benefits of good nutrition for pregnant women were not generally appreciated, thus putting the development of the fetus at risk. The exception was Sparta, where they recognised that young women needed to be healthy to bear strong children110. However, Aristotle, in his Politics (Book 4.16, 1335b11) believes that “pregnant women must take care of their bodies” and not “follow a meager diet”111. Aristotle thus recognizes the importance of healthy offspring for the propagation of the human race.
Plato believed that the fetus is a living being, but the needs of the state must “take precedence over the life and rights of the unborn”112. According to Michael Gorman, Aristotle believed that “life is present in a fetus when distinct organs have been formed” (timing differing for males and females), and in his Politics113 (7.16, 1335b15) he distinguishes between “lawful and unlawful” abortion, depending on “whether or not the fetus was alive”.
Modern abortion laws stipulate a time-period within which an abortion may be legally performed. The World Abortion Laws 2009 Fact Sheet, dated 20th by the Center for Reproductive Rights, New York, “illustrates the varying degrees to which countries worldwide permit access to abortion”, as well as the gestational limits (ranging from 8 – 24 weeks), the most usual period for “quickening” being 12 weeks October 2009, release114.
The Stoics believed that life began when the newborn infant took its first breath, the fetus being part of the mother115.
The Orphics, followers of the Thracian poet Orpheus, believed in a divine origin for the soul. Orphic literature flourished in the Hellenistic period, and the cult which had first emerged in the 6th century BC enjoyed a revival in the 1st century BC116. The Orphics “were the first Greeks to be concerned with the unborn’s fate”117 and their beliefs “led to a condemnation of abortion, exposure and infanticide”.

Abortion

Abortion is a hotly debated subject in Western society, with pro-Life and pro-Choice groups adamantly opposed to the other side’s views119.
Despite the lack of medical knowledge and facilities, and high risk, abortion was not at all uncommon in ancient Greece (more so among the wealthy), with motives being as varied as they are today. According to Michael Gorman, it was “a subject of Greek legal, medical, philosophical and religious concern”, but due to very limited written evidence it is difficult to have “a precise understanding of Greek opinion”. Gorman suggests that since the exposure of newborns went unpunished, “it is highly unlikely that abortion of the unborn was punished”. He cites the Oath of Hippocrates (460-357 BC), in which physicians promise “to help the sick … never with a view to injury and wrong-doing,” neither to “administer a poison”, nor “give to a woman a pessary to cause abortion.” Gorman explains that “an abortive pessary was seen as a poison and rejected as an attack not so much on the fetus as on the woman”.
In Plato’s Theaetetus, 149d120, Socrates makes the following reference to midwives and abortion: “Moreover, with the drugs and incantations they administer, midwives can either bring on the pains of travail or allay them at their will, make a difficult labor easy, and at an early stage cause miscarriage if they so decide.”

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Infanticide

This section should perhaps be titled homicide, since it also covers the deaths of children older than infants.
There are a number of gruesome tales regarding the murder of children. Astyanax was a victim of war, hurled from the ramparts141. Lynda McNeil142 refers to Thyestes and Tereus, whose murdered children were cooked and served up to them143 – a crime more vile than their actual murder, but obviously meant to be the ultimate triumph over an enemy.
As noted earlier, one reason for killing a child was fear that s/he may grow up and wreak revenge on the enemy. Another was the fear that a son may usurp his father’s throne. Herodotus, in The Histories144 the throne, gives one such account in relating Astyages’ succession to 145. Astyages had a dream about his pregnant daughter Mandane, and consulted the Magi for an interpretation. They told him it meant that his grandson, Cyrus, would usurp his throne, and therefore he determined “to make away with” Mandane’s child. Astyages called his trusted kinsman and steward, Harpagus, and gave him instructions: “My safety depends on you. […] Get hold of Mandane’s child – take it home and kill it. Then bury it how you please.”

Introduction
– Research Problem and Aims
– Limitations on Research
– Definitions
– Research Methodology
– Referencing
– Research Parameters
– Sources analyzed and accompanying problems
– Literature Review
– Format
Chapter 1 – Historical and cultural context
– Historical Context
– Attitudes to Creation / Life
– Literary examples of parental love and concern
– Conclusion
Chapter 2 – Life and Death
– War and environmental issues
– Ancient attitudes to the fetus
– Abortion
– Exposure
– Infanticide
– Sacrifice
– Emotion
– Conclusion
Chapter 3 – Growing-up
– Legal status of children
– Education and sport
– Pederasty
– Slaves, slavery and child labour
– Marriage
– Conclusion
Conclusion
Bibliography
Endnotes