Zambia‘s Role in Zimbabwe‘s Liberation Struggle

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Introduction and Historical Background

The period after Zambia‘s independence in 1964 was a critical time in the history of the country because the newly elected United National Independence Party (UNIP) government directed most of its efforts towards supporting liberation struggles in southern Africa. It backed various nationalist movements which adopted armed struggle as the legitimate strategy of fighting white minority governments in the region. They included Movimento Popular de Libertaçao de Angola (MPLA) of Angola, Frente de Libertaçao de Mocambique (FRELIMO) of Mozambique, South West African People‘s Organisation (SWAPO) of Namibia (then, South West Africa), African National Congress (ANC) and Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) of South Africa, and Zimbabwe African People‘s Union (ZAPU) and Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) of Zimbabwe (then, Rhodesia). Although Zambia backed liberation struggles more generally in southern Africa, it was in Zimbabwe1 where the struggle was most complex and difficult. This was due to a number of reasons. First, the nature of the ̳enemy‘ African nationalists confronted in Rhodesia was different from other dependent territories. Unlike other colonial territories in Africa where metropolitan powers directly governed subjects through colonial administrators and representatives, in Rhodesia the case was different.
A minority group of white settlers led by Ian Smith, unilaterally declared Rhodesia‘s independence from Britain on 11 November 1965, effectively halting progress towards black majority rule.2 Rather than seeing Rhodesia as a British colony with prospects of black majority rule emerging in the near future, the white settlers regarded the territory as their own home, an independent country whose destiny was closely tied to their future.3 Thus, African nationalists in Rhodesia faced a difficult task of waging armed struggle not against a British colonial government but against a minority group of white settlers in control of a powerful army bolstered by the South African apartheid government, the seat of white supremacy in southern Africa. Second, Zimbabwe‘s liberation struggle was difficult and prolonged partly because of what Timothy Shaw and Douglas Anglin described as ―a long history of factionalism and feuding‖4 in the nationalist movement, often along ethnic lines.
The two liberation movements—ZAPU and ZANU—often competed for dominance and recruitment of members and in their claims to be revolutionary and committed to liberate the African people in Zimbabwe.5 Zimbabwe‘s independence would have arguably been attained a little earlier than 1980 had the liberation movements prosecuted the war as a united front. However, they remained largely disunited and prosecuted the war separately despite persistent attempts to reconcile them by Zambian leaders, the Front Line States (FLS) and the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), more generally. Zimbabwe achieved independence after protracted negotiations between representatives of the Rhodesian government and nationalist leaders, but the independence conference at Lancaster House in London was a direct product of violent escalation of the armed struggle. This thesis investigates the history of Zambia‘s role in Zimbabwe‘s liberation struggle from the early days of independence in 1964 to the latter part of 1979.
It examines the nature of assistance offered by the Zambian government to the liberation movements in Zimbabwe. It demonstrates that, for national security interests, Zambian authorities used twin tactics in supporting the struggle for black majority rule in Zimbabwe; they backed diplomacy when Rhodesian authorities expressed willingness to negotiate, and readily supported armed struggle when Ian Smith remained intransigent. The central argument is that Zambia‘s role in the liberation struggle was shaped by the Zambian ruling elites‘ ideological, strategic and economic interests, which, in turn, shaped the attitudes and perceptions of and relationships among Zimbabwe nationalist leaders competing for power within the liberation movements. This introductory chapter provides the background to the study. It highlights the statement of the problem and reports on the literature review and research methodology. Formerly known as Northern Rhodesia from 1911 to 1964, Zambia is a landlocked country in south-central Africa encompassing an area of approximately 752,614 square kilometres.
It shares borders with eight countries, namely, Angola to the west, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) to the northwest, Tanzania to the northeast, Malawi to the east, Mozambique to the southeast, Zimbabwe to the south, and Botswana and Namibia to the southwest.6 Northern Rhodesia became a British colony during European Scramble for Africa in the late nineteenth century. While pursuing British commercial and political interests in central Africa, Cecil John Rhodes‘ British South Africa Company (BSAC)7 obtained mineral concessions from local chiefs. In 1888, the territory was proclaimed a British sphere of influence. Initial attempts to secure the territory were made in Barotseland (now western province) through the Barotse Concession to the BSAC, ostensibly, a representative of the queen. The Barotse Concession, also known as the Lockner Concession, was signed in June 1890 between King Lewanika of the Lozi people of Barotseland and Rhodes‘ personal representative, Frank Elliot Lockner. Believing that he was dealing directly with the British government, Lewanika signed the Concession to seek British protection from internal and external threats to his rule.

Table of Contents :

• Abstract
• Dedication
• Acknowledgements
• List of Abbreviations
• List of Tables
• Chapter 1: Introduction and Historical Background
  • Statement of the Problem
  • Objectives
  • Significance of the Study
  • Focus and Period of Study
  • Conceptual Definition
  • Historiography
  • Research Methodology
• Chapter 2: Zambia and the Liberation of Southern Africa,
  • Origins of Armed Struggles in Southern Africa
  • Zambia‘s Foreign Policy and Southern Africa
  • Contexts of Zambia‘s Support for Armed Struggles in Southern Africa
  • Local Forms of Support for the Liberation Movements
  • Diplomatic Support
  • Lusaka Manifesto on Southern Africa
  • Dialogue with South Africa and African Unity
  • From Lusaka Manifesto to Mogadishu Declaration
  • Angolan Crisis and Zambia’s Ambigous Position
  • End Portuguese Rule and Shift in Zambia‘s Attitude
• Chapter 3: Zambia‘s Role in Zimbabwe‘s Liberation Struggle
  • Quest for ZAPU / ZANU Unity
  • ZAPU and ZANU Attitudes
  • Domestic Debates on Rhodesia
  • Preparations for Armed Struggle
  • Mobilisation and Training of Combatants
  • Hosting Zimbabwe Nationalists
  • Broadcasting Facilities
  • Diplomatic Backing for Zimbabwe‘s Liberation Struggle
  • Zambia and the Front Line States
  • Victoria Falls Conference
  • Intensification of Armed Struggle
  • Kissinger Strategy
  • Geneva Conference
  • Anglo-American Proposals
  • Malta
  • Internal Settlement
  • Guerrilla Buildup and Escalation of War
  • Commonwealth Summit in Lusaka
  • From Lusaka to London‘s Lancaster House
• Chapter 4: Contesting Zambia‘s Role in Zimbabwe‘s Liberation Struggle
  • Zambia, UDI and Decolonisation
  • Students‘ Attitude
  • 1976 Student Protests
  • Concerns of Members of Parliament (MPs)
  • State of Emergency and MPs
  • Views of the Business Community
• Chapter 5: An Uneasy Relationship: Reconstructing the Zimbabwean Nationalists‘ Attitudes towards
  • Zambia‘s Role in Zimbabwe‘s Liberation Struggle
  • OAU‘s Early Efforts at Unity and Nationalist Attitudes
  • Zimbabwean Nationalists and the Lusaka Manifesto
  • ZAPU Crisis and Zambia‘s Response
  • Concerns, Ordeal and Plight of the March 11 Movement
  • ZANU, Zambia and Détente
  • ZANU Crisis and the Zambian Government
  • Nhari Rebellion and Chitepo‘s Assassination
  • Arrests, Detention and Torture of ZANU Nationalists
  • Critique of Détente
  • Theories of Chitepo’s Murder
  • Secret Diplomacy: Conspiracy to Install Nkomo as Zimbabwe‘s Leader
  • The Rise and Fall of ZIPA
  • Kaunda and Smith Secret Encounter
• Chapter 6: The Cost of Zambia‘s Role in Zimbabwe‘s Liberation Struggle
  • Background to Zambia‘s Economic Reliance on Rhodesia
  • International Sanctions on Rhodesia
  • Zambia‘s Attitude to ―Voluntary‖ Sanctions on Rhodesia
  • Contingency Operations
  • 1973 Border Closure
  • Disaster, Death and Destruction: Rhodesian Armed Attacks on Zambia
  • Air Strikes on ZAPU Guerrilla Camps
  • Attack on Kavalamanja
  • ̳Freedom Camp‘ and Mkushi Raids
  • Rhodesian Military Strikes on Zambian Bridges
• Chapter 7: Summary and Conclusion
  • Appendix I: Contributions from Member States 1965/1966 Received up to 31 May
  • Appendix II: Contributions from Member States 1966/1967 Received up to 31 May
  • Appendix III: Contributions from Member States 1967/1968 Received up to 31 May
  • Appendix IV: Contributions from Member States 1968/1969 Received up to 30 November
  • Appendix V: Arrears of Contribution from Member States for the Years 1964/65 to 1968/
  • Bibliography

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