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INTRODUCTION

Weaver and Lawton (2002) contend that the basic aim of tourism management at a destination wide scale is to maximise the sector’s economic, socio-cultural and environmental benefits, while minimising the associated costs. Over the years critics such as Mathieson and Wall (1982), Cohen (1988), Smith (1989), Ap and Crompton (1993) Lankford (1994), Swarbrooke (1999), Shackley (2000), Keyser (2002) and Weaver and Lawton (2002) have argued that in order to meet this objective, destination managers must understand the potential positive and negative impacts of tourism as perceived by the host community.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL IMPACT OF TOURISM ON THE HOST COMMUNITY

The socio-cultural impacts of tourism have been extensively studied and discussed, and were put before a wide audience in Mathieson and Wall’s 1982 publication entitled Tourism: The economic, physical and social impacts . In general, the focus has been on the negative impacts of tourism on host societies and cultures. However, it is important to recognise that the effects can also be positive. Research on the social and cultural impacts of tourism has focused on three areas, namely the tourist, the host, and the tourist-host interrelationship.

FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Because cultural tourists are motivated by an interest in local cultures in choosing to visit a particular location, they have been identified as both a blessing and blight as far as their social and cultural impact is concerned. Some authors have suggested that culturally motivated tourists are desirable because th ey tend to be relatively few in number and are more sympathetic in their approach to the local population and their culture than other tourists (Smith, 1989; Boniface, 1995; Asplet & Cooper, 2000). Others have suggested that it is precisely this cultural motivation that makes cultural tourists less desirable in some areas. Butler (1990) has suggested that ‘alternative’ tourists seeking authentic cultural experiences can open up culturally fragile areas, paving the way for potentially more damaging mass tourism.

Problem statement

Political violence may have made townships no-go areas for foreign tourists in the days of apartheid, but since South Africa’s first democratic elections in 1994, township tourism has been growing rapidly as international tourists are eager to see how the country has progressed. Communities living in and around townships are thus affected by township tourism, either positively or negatively. Township tourism is a new and unique tourism product that is rapidly gaining currency in South Africa, with little or no research on its development, planning and impacts.

REASONS FOR SELECTING SOWETO AS THE STUDY AREA

Townships throughout South Africa are in many ways similar in terms of their historical, geographical and socio-economic arrangement. Having originally been established as dormitory towns as a means of enforcing segregation, townships in South Africa are perceived as being inhabited by poor and crime-ridden communities in which high levels of political strife are prevalent. Consequently, there has been a deep-rooted perception among many South Africans and foreigners that townships are not a place to visit because of the threat they pose to personal safety.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL ORIENTATION OF THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL IMPACT OF TOURISM ON THE HOST COMMUNITY
1.3 SOUTH AFRICA’S CULTURAL RESOURCES POST 1994
1.4 TOWNSHIP TOURISM
1.5 FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
1.5.1 Problem Statement
1.6 REASONS FOR SELECTING SOWETO AS THE STUDY AREA
1.7 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.8 VALUE OF THE RESEARCH
1.9 ASSUMPTIONS
1.10 DELIMITATIONS
1.11 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
1.11.1 Dimensions of tourism management
1.11.2 Philosophy of research methodology
1.12 METHODOLOGY
1.13 RESEARCH DESIGN
1.14 DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS
1.15 ORGANISATION OF CHAPTERS
1.16 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AREA: SOWETO
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 DEVELOPMENT OF SOWETO SOCIETY
2.2.1 Soweto and the 1976 uprising
2.2.2 The road to democracy
2.2.3 Population profile and culture
2.3 RELIGION
2.4 SPAZA SHOPS
2.5 TRANSPORT
2.6 SPORT
2.7 POLITICAL PARTIES
2.8 INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITY
2.9 A BRIEF HISTORY OF BLACK EDUCATION
2.10 HOUSING
2.11 HEALTH CARE AND CH RIS HANI BARAGWANATH HOSPITAL
2.12 THE SOWETO TOWNSHIP TOURISM TRAIL
2.13 THE DEMAND FOR TOWNSHIP TOURISM
2.14 TOURIST EXPECTATIONS OF TOWNSHIP EXPERIENCES
2.15 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW: PERCEPTIONS OF SOCIO CULTURAL IMPACTS AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 SPECIAL-INTEREST TOURISM AND CULTURAL TOURISM MOTIVATORS
3.3 FACTORS FACILITATING THE GROWTH OF CULTURAL TOURISM
3.4 IN SEARCH OF AUTHENTICITY — A CULTURAL TOURIST MOTIVATION DEBATE
3.5 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HOST AND GUEST
3.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF HOST-GUEST RELATIONSHIPS: KEY TO SUCCESS OR DISASTER?
3.7 HOST PERCEPTIONS OF IMPACTS AND THE NEED FOR HOST PERCEPTION RESEARCH
3.8 SYNOPSIS OF THE LITERATURE DEALING WITH THE PERCEIVED POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACTS OF TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
3.9 A TYPOLOGY OF TOURISM-HOST COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIPS
3.10 TOURIST-HOST CONTACT IN LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
3.11 DETERMINANTS OF HOST COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS (FACTORS INFLUENCING RESIDENT PERCEPTIONS OF IMPACTS)
3.12 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACTS
3.13 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES: THEORIES AND MODELS
3.14 DOXEY’S INDEX OF IRRITATION (IRRIDEX)
3.15 BUTLER’S TOURIST AREA LIFE CYCLE MODEL
3.16 SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY
3.17 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4: LITERATURE REVIEW: APPROPRIATE PLANNING FOR TOURISM IN DESTINATION COMMUNITIES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 SOCIO-CULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY
4.3 THE NON-SUSTAINABLE DIMENSION OF CULTURAL TOURISM
4.3.1 Continuous use of cultural sites
4.3.2 Lack of local control
4.3.3 Trivialisation or loss of authenticity
4.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
4.5 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
4.6 CRITIQUE OF THE SUSTAINABLE TOURISM APPROACH
4.7 RESPONSIBLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
4.8 RESPONSIBLE COMMUNITY TOURISM AS THE WAY FORWARD?
4.9 TOWARDS A RESPONSIBLE COMMUNITY TOURISM APPROACH
4.10 WHY COMMUNITIES NEED TO BE EMPOWERED TO HAVE A MANAGEMENT ROLE
4.10.1 Economic empowerment
4.10.2 Social empowerment
4.10.3 Psychological empowerment
4.10.4 Political empowerment
4.11 APPROPRIATE FORMS OF COMMUNITY TOURISM: ISSUES OF SCALE AND THE NATURE OF TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
4.12 HOW OUTSIDE VISITORS CAN MANAGE COMMUNITY TOURISM IMPACTS
4.13 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
5.2.1 Qualitative approach
5.2.2 Quantitative approach
5.3 TOWARDS TRIANGULATION AS AN APPROACH
5.4 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION USED IN THE STUDY
5.4.1 Primary research methods for data collection
5.4.2 Secondary research methods for data collection
5.5 DESCRIPTION OF THE MAIN MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT USED IN THE STUDY: THE LIKERT METHOD
5.5.1 Advantages of the Likert method
5.5.2 Construction of the Likert scale que stionnaire used in the study
5.5.3 Pool of items (impact variables) derived from the literature and fieldwork
5.6 PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS
5.7 SAMPLING DESIGN AND SAMPLING METHODS USED IN THE STUDY
5.7.1 Population and sampling frame
5.7.2 Sample size
5.7.3 Sampling technique followed for quantitative research design
5.8 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE (FIELDWORK) IN THE STUDY
5.9 DATA ANALYSIS OF LIKERT SCALE QUESTIONNAIRE
5.9.1 The analysis of univa riate data used in the study
5.9.2 The analysis of bivariate data used in the study
5.9.3 The analysis of multivariate data used in the study
5.10 DESCRIPTION OF QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGY FOLLOWED
5.10.1 Semi -structured personal interviews
5.10.2 Participant observation
5.10.3 Qualitative sampling
5.10.4 Sample size — qualitative study
5.10.5 Data ana lysis — qualitative study
5.11 VALIDITY OF DATA
5.12 RELIABILITY OF THE DATA
5.13 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6: PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 GENERAL DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
6.3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH RESULTS
6.3.1 Results from semi-structured in-depth personal interviews
6.3.1.1 POSTIVE PERCEPTIONS
6.3.1.2 NEGATIVE PERCEPTIONS
6.3.1.3 INTERPRETATION OF REPORTED PERCEPTIONS
6.3.2 Results derived from the researcher’s field notes during participant observation
6.4 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH RESULTS
6.4.1 Distribution of responses to soci o-cultural impact statements
6.4.2 Responses to impact variables given by respondents who derive income from tourism and those who do not
6.4.3 The most positively perceived socio -cultural impacts
6.4.4 The most negatively perceived socio-cultural impacts
6.4.5 Difference in perceptions based on the demographic variable of income from tourism
6.4.6 Factor analysis
6.4.6.1 Results of factor ana lysis: direct principal component method using direct obliman method
6.4.6.2 Eigenvalues
6.4.6.3 Chronbach’s alpha coefficient of reliability
6.4.7 Validity of scales and item analysis
6.4.8 ANOVA procedures (tests of analysis of variance)
6.4.8.1 ANOVA test: income from tourism
6.4.8.2 ANOVA test of gender
6.4.8.3 ANOVA test of community attachment
6.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
7.3 COMPREHENSIVE SUMMARY OF THE RESEACH AND MAIN FINDINGS
7.4 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE PRESENT STUDY TO THE DISCIPLINE OF TOURISM MANAGEMENT
7.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
7.6 THE CHALLENGE OF MANAGING RESPONSIBLE TOWNSHIP TOURISM IN SOWETO: TOWARDS A COMMUNITY APPROACH
7.7 GUIDELINES AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESPONSIBLE TOWNSHIP TOURISM MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA
7.8 SUMMARY
REFERENCES

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