Air pollution in developing countries

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AIR POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

The air quality of developing countries is of concern due to industrial development, economic growth and large-scale migration of rural residents to urban areas. Consequences of this include a decline in food security, an increase in respiratory related illnesses, and a degradation of both the quality of life and the environment (Mmolawa, 2006). Comprehensive and reliable air monitoring data is key to the improvement of air quality, as without this information it is impossible to identify and apportion emission sources (Hight and Ferrier, 2006).
Whilst it is acknowledged that significant progress has been made in organic air pollutant monitoring in many developing countries in Asia and South America, here we focus on southern Africa. The geographic delineation for the region was used, i.e. the portion of Africa south of the Cunene and Zambezi rivers. This incorporates the countries of Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe, as shown in Figure 1.1.
In addition to industrial emissions, major sources of air pollutants in developing countries include dependence on fossil fuels, and increasing traffic densities in urban areas, mainly involving an aged vehicle fleet without catalytic converters. Poor indoor air quality is also often of concern, due to the use of open fires for cooking and heating purposes. Besides the relatively commonly monitored inorganic pollutants which are released from these combustion processes, for example, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide; organic pollutants may also be released in the gaseous form or associated with particles.
Hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are examples of such pollutants, as are polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and furans which may be generated when chlorinated material is combusted. Although the organic pollutants would generally be present at lower concentrations than the inorganic species, they are nevertheless of environmental significance due to their potential impacts (including health effects) at low levels.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Air pollution in developing countries
1.2 Hindrances to air pollutant monitoring in developing countries and means by
which these are being addressed
1.3 Overview of organic air pollutant monitoring in southern Africa
1.3.1 Botswana
1.3.2 Lesotho
1.3.3 Mozambique
1.3.4 Namibia
1.3.5 South Africa
1.3.6 Swaziland
1.3.7 Zimbabwe
1.3.8 Other African studies
1.3.9 Involvement of southern Africa in international conventions
1.3.10 Southern African air monitoring campaigns
1.4 Use of alternative monitoring methods
1.4.1 Passive sampling
1.4.2 Indicator compounds
1.4.3 Screening methods
1.5 Purpose of this study
1.6 Structure of the thesis
1.7 References
CHAPTER 2 THE GENERATION OF TRACE GAS STANDARDS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Permeation tubes
2.2.1 Theory
2.2.2 Experimental method
2.2.3 Results and discussion
2.2.4 Conclusion
2.3 Diffusion tubes
2.3.1 Theory
2.3.2 Experimental method
2.3.3 Results and discussion
2.3.4 Conclusion
2.4 PDMS trap loading via gas chromatographic fraction collection
2.4.1 Background
2.4.2 Experimental method
2.4.3 Results and discussion
2.4.4 Conclusion
2.5 Overall conclusion
2.6 References
CHAPTER 3 LASER INDUCED FLUORESCENCE OF ATMOSPHERIC POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Problem statement and aim
3.1.2 PAHs in the environment
3.1.3 Fluorescence characteristics of PAHs
3.1.4 Literature review of the use of laser induced fluorescence in the monitoring of PAHs
3.1.5 The role of screening methods in PAH analysis
3.1.6 Choice of PAHs to be studied
3.1.7 Multi-channel silicone rubber traps
3.2 Development of the LIF method
3.2.1 Initial method development
3.2.2 Repeatability of the method
3.2.3 Sensitivity of the method
3.2.4 PAH photodegradation
3.2.5 Energy experiments
3.2.6 Substrate optimization
3.3 Overall conclusion
3.4 References
CHAPTER 4 THE USE OF MULTI-CHANNEL SILICONE RUBBER TRAPS AS DENUDERS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Theoretical considerations
4.2.1 Verification of laminar flow
4.2.2 Verification of negligible linear velocity arising from longitudinal diffusion
4.2.3 Calculation of the efficiency of removal of gaseous components by the denuder
4.2.4 Calculation of the efficiency of particle transmission by the denuder
4.3 Discussion and conclusion
4.4 References
CHAPTER 5 APPLICATIONS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Domestic fuel burning
5.2.1 Background
5.2.2 Experimental method

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