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BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY (1979)

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INTRODUCTION

Disability is a condition that continuously restricts participation and is attributable to  sensory, motor, cognitive, neurological, intellectual and/or a combination of these  impairments (WHO, 2011). Cerebral palsy is frequently a common cause of  disability in children; as a result, children with cerebral palsy require educational  support in order to participate and progress in full-service schools with their typical  peers (Cruickshank & Raus, 1955). However, Holownsky (1979) maintains that it is  imperative for teachers to understand the limitations experienced by these children  in order to provide the necessary educational support for children with cerebral palsy  to be able to access the general curriculum in full-service schools.
During the apartheid era, from 1948 to 1994, when the white population group  enjoyed benefits at the expense of other population groups, the education system  in South Africa supported segregation, as there were different schools not only for  the various ethnic groups, but also for children with disabilities (Daniels, 2010;  Engelbrecht, 2006; Engelbrecht, Oswald & Forlin, 2006; Lomofsky & Lazarus,  2001). Former white schools were adequately equipped in terms of financial, human  and infrastructural resources (Perumal, 2009; Yamaunchi, 2005). As a result, white  children received the kind of education that promoted “skills development, critical  thinking, attitudes and understanding” (Nekwevha, 1999, p. 498). On the other  hand, education for black children was characterised as focusing mainly on “rote  learning” that prepared them to be “hewers of wood and bearers of water” (Perumal,  2009, p. 36).  There was also segregation in the education of children with disabilities. While white  children with disabilities enjoyed educational support in well-resourced schools,  special schools for black children with disabilities were scarce and difficult to access  (Muthukrishna & Schoeman, 2000). These special schools mainly admitted children  who were deaf and those with visual disabilities (Gwala-Obisi, Nkambinde &  Rodrigues, 998), and no provision was made for children with cerebral palsy.  Consequently, the majority of children with disabilities attended regular schools  supported by teachers trained inadequately in the epistemology of disability (Abosi,  2007), or dropped out of school, with no opportunity to join the labour market  (Perumal, 2009; Yamauchi, 2005).
With the dawn of democracy in 1994, a new Constitution (Republic of South Africa,  1996) and Bill of Rights (Act No. 108 of 1996) were adopted by the South African  government in an attempt to address the disparities in its education system  (Engelbrecht, 2006). Equal access to education, namely education for all, became  a fundamental rights matter in the Constitution, especially for previously  marginalised groups (Daniels, 2010). In trying to redress these past imbalances,  the government faced not only the challenge of including children with disabilities in  full-service schools, but also the responsibility to provide quality education to these  children (UNESCO, 1994). An inclusive educational policy, which welcomed  children with disabilities in full-service schools, was, therefore, adopted, allowing  these children to be educated with their peers while acknowledging a different  trajectory to be followed in their learning process (Department of Education, 2011).  Key to these children progressing with other children without disabilities was the  acknowledgement that they should have access to the general curriculum  (Department of Education, 2010).
The Department of Education regards access to the general curriculum as “an  ongoing effort to finding effective ways to ensure that children access and make  progress in the general curriculum while receiving individualised instruction and  supports” (Department of Education, 2010, p. 30) and as a distinguishing  characteristic of inclusive education. However, Ntombela (2011) maintains that the  majority of teachers in South Africa are not equipped to deal with children with  #diverse learning needs, with the result that these children continue to be excluded  from mainstream classes. The primary aim of this study was, therefore, to explore  rural schoolteachers’ perceptions regarding inclusive education and to determine  how they teach children with cerebral palsy in order to create meaningful learning  opportunities and improve curriculum accessibility for these learners.    RATIONALE  It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the benefits of inclusive education as  inclusion is integral to the process of changing social perceptions and is crucial for  effective and progressive development (Evans & Lunt, 2002). Inclusive education  is deemed to be a strategy to remove educational barriers for children with  disabilities in order for them to participate in school activities with their counterparts.
The Department of Basic Education also endeavours to level the inequalities that  exist between mainstream and special schools with the implementation of inclusive  education (Department of Education, 2011). In line with the White Paper 6: Special  Needs Education, Building an Inclusive Education and Training System, both the  Department of Education (2001) and Jordan, Schwarts and McGhie-Richmond  (2009) reveal in their research on disabled children that communities which practise  inclusive principles in their schools manage to change perceptions about disabilities.  Furthermore, developing children without disabilities benefit from intervention  strategies applied in inclusive classes, and so their performance improves.    Aguerrondo (2008) asserts that the implementation of inclusive education facilitates  the provision ofservices for children’s diverse learning needs and eradicates  inequalities brought about by anti-discriminatory laws; consequently, segregation  can be eradicated. However, Aguerrondo (2008, p. 58, 61) further identifies new    challenges that emanate from the implementation process, namely “political-  ideological, epistemological, pedagogical and institutional” problems. He proposes    a “new vision” of developing an inclusive culture that will facilitate the  implementation process and offer accessible and quality education for all.

LIST OF CONTENTS

  • CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND ORIENTATION OF THE STUDY
    • 1.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 1.2 RATIONALE
    • 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
      • 1.3.1 Main research question
      • 1.3.2 Sub-questions
    • 1.4 CONCEPT CLARIFICATION
      • 1.4.1 Curriculum accessibility
      • 1.4.2 Cerebral palsy
      • 1.4.3 Inclusive education
    • 1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW
      • 1.5.1 Political-ideological factors
      • 1.5.2 Pedagogical factors
      • 1.5.3 Epistemological factors
      • 1.5.4 Institutional factors
    • 1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
      • 1.6.1 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (1979)
      • 1.6.2 Theories of cognitive development
      • 1.6.2.1 Vygotsky’s social constructivist theory
      • 1.6.2.2 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
    • 1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
      • 1.7.1 Research design
      • 1.7.1.1 Constructivist research paradigm
      • 1.7.1.2 Research approach
      • 1.7.1.3 Research type: Multiple case study
      • 1.7.1.4 Role of the researcher
    • 1.7.2 Research methods
      • 1.7.2.1 Selection of research sites
      • 1.7.2.2 Selection of participants
      • 1.7.2.3 Data collection
    • (i) Observation
    • (ii) Participation observation
    • (iii) Complete observation
    • (iv) Focus group interviews
    • (v) Individual interviews
      • 1.7.3 Data analysis
    • 1.8 TRUSTWORTHINESS
    • 1.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
  • 1.10LAYOUT OF CHAPTERS
    • 1.11CONCLUDING REMARKS
  • CHAPTER 2: DISABILITY AND CEREBRAL PALSY: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
    • 2.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 2.2 PERSPECTIVES ON DISABILITY
      • 2.2.1 Medical model
      • 2.2.2 Social model
      • 2.2.3 Redefining disability
      • 2.2.4 Neurodisabilities
    • 2.3 AN OVERVIEW OF CEREBRAL PALSY
      • 2.3.1 Types and classification of cerebral palsy
      • 2.3.1.1 Etiological
      • 2.3.1.2 Therapeutic and functional capacity
      • 2.3.1.3 Supplemental
      • 2.3.1.4 Neuroanatomical
    • 2.3.2 Topographic classification
      • 2.3.3 Physiological classification
      • 2.3.3.1 Spastic cerebral palsy
      • 2.3.3.2 Athetoid cerebral palsy
      • 2.3.3.3 Ataxia cerebral palsy
      • 2.3.4 A cognitive profile of the child with cerebral palsy
      • 2.3.4.1 Dyslexia
      • 2.3.4.2 Dyscalculia
      • 2.3.4.3 Dysgraphia
    • 2.4 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
      • 2.4.1 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (1978)
      • 2.4.2 Piaget’s cognitive development theory (1979)
    • 2.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
  • CHAPTER 3: PERSPECTIVES AND POLICIES ON INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
    • 3.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 3.2 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION INTERNATIONALLY
      • 3.2.1 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
      • 3.2.2 The International Bill of Human Rights (1948)
      • 3.2.3 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
      • 3.2.4 Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Disabled
      • Persons (1993)
      • 3.2.5 Salamanca Statement (1994)
      • 3.2.6 Education for All (2000)
      • 3.2.7 Inclusive education in Africa
    • 3.3 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
      • 3.3.1 The Constitution of South Africa, 1996 (Act No. 108 of 1996)
      • 3.3.2 The South African Schools Act (1996)
      • 3.3.3 Admission Policy for Public Ordinary Schools (1996)
      • 3.3.4 The National Commission on Special Needs in Education and Training and the National Committee on Education Support and Services (1997)
    • 3.3.5 The White Paper on an Integrated National Disability Strategy (1997)
    • 3.3.6 White Paper 6: Building an inclusive education and training system (
    • 3.3.7 Guidelines for Full-Service or Inclusive Schools (2010)
    • 3.3.8 National policy pertaining to the programme and promotion requirements for the National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 (2011)
    • 3.3.9 The White Paper for Post-School Education and Training (2013)
    • 3.3.10 Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support strategy (2014)
    • 3.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
    • 3.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
  • CHAPTER 4: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
    • 4.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 4.2 BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY (1979)
    • 4.3 APPLICATION OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
    • 4.3.1 Microsystem
      • 4.3.1.1 Parents and the child with cerebral palsy
      • 4.3.1.2 The teacher and the child with cerebral palsy
      • 4.3.1.3 Siblings and friends of the child with cerebral palsy
      • 4.3.2 Mesosystem
      • 4.3.2.1 Relationship between parents and the school or teachers
      • 4.3.3 Exosystem
      • 4.3.3.1 Training of teachers
      • 4.3.3.2 Support of teachers
      • 4.3.4 Macrosystem
      • 4.3.4.1 Culture
    • (i) Cultural attitudes towards disabilities in rural areas
    • 4.3.5 Chronosystem
      • 4.3.5.1 Rurality
      • 4.3.5.2 Ubuntu
      • 4.3.5.3 The asset-based approach
    • 4.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
  • CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
    • 5.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 5.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
    • 5.2.1 Main research question
    • 5.2.2 Sub-questions
    • 5.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
      • 5.3.1 Research design
      • 5.3.2 Research paradigm
      • 5.3.3 Research approach
      • 5.3.4 Research type: Multiple case study
      • 5.3.4.1 Special school
      • 5.3.4.2 Full-service school (School 2)
      • 5.3.4.3 Full-service school (School 3)
    • 5.4 RESEARCH METHODS
    • 5.4.1 Selection of research sites
    • 5.4.2 Selection of participants
    • 5.4.2.1 Teachers as participants
      • 5.4.2.2 Coordinator of the district-based support team as participant
      • 5.4.2.3 Parents of children with cerebral palsy as participants
      • 5.4.3 Process of gaining access to the research sites and participants
      • 5.4.3.1 Meeting with the head of the Department of Education
      • 5.4.3.2 Meeting with the circuit manager
      • 5.4.3.3 Meeting with principals
      • 5.4.3.4 Meeting with teachers
      • 5.4.3.5 Meeting with the parents of children with cerebral palsy
      • 5.4.3.6 Meeting with the coordinator of the district-based support team
      • 5.4.4 Data collection instruments
      • 5.4.4.1 The role of the researcher
      • 5.4.4.2 Participation observation
      • 5.4.4.3 Complete observer
      • (i) Creating inclusive cultures
      • (ii) Producing inclusive policies
      • (iii) Evolving inclusive practices
    • 5.4.4.4 Semi-structured interviews
    • 5.5 DATA ANALYSIS
    • 5.5.1 Thematic data analysis process used in this study
      • 5.5.2 Preparing and organising the data
      • 5.5.3 Reducing the data
      • 5.5.4 Visualising, representing and displaying the data
      • 5.6 TRUSTWORTHINESS
      • 5.6.1 Credibility
      • 5.6.2 Transferability
      • 5.6.3 Dependability
      • 5.6.4 Confirmability
    • 5.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
    • 5.7.1 Voluntary participation and informed consent
    • 5.7.2 Non-deception of participants
    • 5.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS
  • CHAPTER 6: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
    • 6.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 6.2 THE CODES OF ALL THE PARTICIPANTS IN THIS STUDY
    • 6.2.1 Participation observation
    • 6.2.2 Complete observation
    • 6.2.3 Focus group interviews: Teachers
    • 6.2.4 Individual interviews: Coordinator of the district-based support team
    • 6.2.5 Individual interviews: Parents
    • 6.3 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION: PARTICIPATION OBSERVATION
    • 6.3.1 Comparative analysis: Participation observation data
    • 6.3.2 Interpretation: Participation observation data
    • 6.3.2.1 Theme: Accessibility of schools
    • (i) Lack of human resources
    • (ii) Inaccessible infrastructure
    • 6.4 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION: COMPLETE OBSERVATION STAGE
    • Theme 2: Producing Inclusive policies
      • 6.4.3 6.4.1 Theme 1: Creating inclusive cultures
      • 6.4.2 Theme 3: Evolving inclusive practices
    • 6.5 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION: INTERVIEWS WITHT TEACHERS
    • 6.5.1 Data interpretation: Interview data of teachers
    • 6.5.1.1 Theme 1: Understanding inclusive education and disability
    • (i) Rurality
    • (ii) Poverty
    • (iii) Educational level of parents
    • 6.5.1.2 Theme 2: Lack of progression and independence
    • (i) Lack of training
    • (ii) Lack of support and resources
    • 6.6 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION: INTERVIEW WITH COORDINATOR
    • 6.6.1 Data interpretation: Coordinator interview data
      • 6.6.1.1 Theme 1: Lack of support professionals
      • 6.6.1.2 Theme 2: Lack of collaboration
    • 6.7 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION: INTERVIEWS WITH PARENTS
    • 6.7.1 Data interpretation: Interviews with parents
    • 6.7.1.1 Theme 1: Cultural beliefs
    • (i) Attitudes toward disabilities
    • (ii) Witchcraft
    • (ii) Belief system
    • 6.7.1.2 Theme 2: Socioeconomic status
    • (i) Lack of employment
    • (ii) Literacy levels
    • 6.8 SUMMATIVE OVERVIEW: THEMES AND CATEGORIES
    • 6.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS
  • CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
    • 7.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 7.2 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE AND EMPIRICAL FINDINGS
    • 7.2.1 Summary of literature findings
    • 7.2.1.1 Findings relating to disability and cerebral palsy
    • 7.2.1.2 Findings in relation to the perspectives and policies on inclusive education
    • 7.2.1.3 Scientific findings relating to the theoretical framework
    • (i) Microsystem
    • (ii) Mesosystem
    • (iii) Exosystem
    • (iv) Macrosystem
    • (v) Chronosystem
    • 7.2.2 Summary of empirical data
      • 7.2.2.1 Accessibility of schools
      • 7.2.2.2 Understanding inclusive education and disability
      • 7.2.2.3 Creating inclusive cultures, producing inclusive policies and evolving inclusive practices
    • 7.3 RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS
    • 7.3.1 Sub-question 1: What are the perceptions of teachers in rural schools regarding inclusive education?
    • 7.3.2 Sub-question 2: How do teachers in rural schools teach learners with cerebral palsy?
    • 7.3.3 Sub-question 3: How can meaningful learning opportunities be made accessible to learners with cerebral palsy?
    • 7.3.4 Main research question: What are the key requirements for meaningful learning opportunities for learners with cerebral palsy in rural schools?
    • 7.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
    • 7.4.1 Recommendation 1: Creating conducive environments for the policy
    • 7.4.2 Recommendation 2: Collaboration between universities and the Department of Basic Education
    • 7.4.3 Recommendation 3: Collaboration between interdepartmental and interdisciplinary services
    • 7.4.4 Recommendation 4: Strengthening resource centres to improve the accessibility of services and resources to children with cerebral palsy in full-service schools
    • 7.4.5 Recommendation 5: Disability awareness in the community
    • 7.4.6 Recommendation 6: Addressing disability-related socioeconomic matters
    • 7.4.7 Empowering the office of the coordinator of the district-based support team
    • 7.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
    • 7.6 LIMITATIONS
    • 7.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS
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