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Techniques of taking body measurements
In the manufacture of custom-made clothing, the customer’s body measurements are taken and used to fit her unique body shape and size (Glock & Kunz, 2005:196; Koskennurmi-Sivonen & Pietarila, 2009:256; Aldrich, 2008:178). In addition, traditional tailoring makes use of the customer’s measurements to create new patterns (Di Lorenzo, 2010:47) and styles for custom-made garments from scratch (Knowles, 2005:44). In traditional tailoring, a custom-tailor or dressmaker uses ordinary tape measure to obtain a client’s body measurements (Mastamet-Mason, 2008:19). However, different tailors may follow different procedures due to varying levels of expertise (Schofield, 2007:152). While it is important to use body landmarks to guide the measurement process, this hardly occurs in traditional tailoring. Such an omission may result in inaccurate measurements, and is likely to lead to compromised fit and appearance of the ultimate custom-made garment. In traditional tailoring, the body dimensions to measure are pre-determined by the type of garment to be made (Cornell University, 2003). However, most tailors take body measurements while clients are fully clothed. In addition, most tailors commonly run the index figure between the tape measure and the body to ascertain that the tape measure is neither too tight nor too loose. While these can lead to inaccurate measurements, the client’s posture and shift during measurement can further compromise accuracy of measurements. These challenges may result in production of ill-fitting garments (Yu, 2004:173; Strydom & De Klerk, 2006). Following the limitations associated with the manual ways of taking body measurements based on the tape measure, the use of body scanning technology may provide a solution. Three-dimensional (3-D) body-scanning provides a means of taking body measurements more efficiently and with fewer errors than when taken manually by a person (Brown & Rice, 2014:232). This technology is positioning clothing industry to design better-fitting clothing for consumers. The anthropometric body scans can produce lots of information that define human size and shape within a short time (ibid). Bye et al. (2006:68) assert that the importance of body scanning is not only in the enhanced measurement capture and depth of data, but also in its ability to enforce a better understanding of the body, its proportions and its relationship to clothing, which the manual methods of body measurements cannot achieve. Moreover, through body scanning, digitalized 3-D human body scans can be obtained readily to facilitate creation of 3-D garments that ensure fit (Hong, Zeng, Bruniaux & Liu, 2016:1262). A garment is a 3-D shape made from a 2-D pattern to cover the complex geometry of the human body (ibid.). While an opportunity to equip tailors in the IS with knowledge of 3-D body scanning technology and its use may enhance performance in terms of provision of personalised fit, the high expense involved renders it inaccessible. Furthermore, most IS tailors not only have basic education, but also tend to rely on outdated technology to acquire basic technical knowledge and skills informally. The limited education and poverty further constrain tailors’ capability of acquiring the applicable technological knowledge. Following these constraints, it is plausible to say that traditional tailors should be presented with opportunity to acquire the right skills to obtain accurate body measurements using the tape measure.
Knowles (2005:19) asserts that the ability to take accurate body measurements is an important skill for pattern-making that all pattern-makers should learn. Similarly, Bye, LaBat, & DeLong (2006:66-68) point out that success in individualised tailoring demands a professional approach to obtaining accurate body measurements. Effective interaction with customers when taking body measurements is known to be helpful in setting them at ease. This also enables those taking measurements to become conversant with the body shapes and sizes and helps to raise the level of accuracy of body measurements. Measures to obtain accurate measurements promote production of patterns with the right amount of ease, style and fit (Aldrich, 2008:178).
Burke (2011:144) points out that accurate body measurements are needed to develop patterns that can achieve good fit. Current and accurate body measurements can guarantee a ‘personalised fit’, which is the main attribute that sets custom-made clothing apart (Reader’s Digest, 2002: 27-29). Fit is, however, very individualistic, therefore, knowledge of the customers’ fit preferences is crucial to how body measurements are taken (Alexander et al., 2005:53). This underscores the need for custom-tailors to acquire relevant skills on how to obtain specifications needed to create the customer’s preferred style and fit (Rasband, 2002:359; Frings, 2005:6; Glock & Kunz, 2005:196). Only then can the tailors transfer relevant skills to apprentices.
Pattern-making techniques
Di Lorenzo (2010:47) asserts that in traditional tailoring, everything starts with knowing the design. This is often followed by making the pattern. A pattern is a fundamental piece in the art of tailoring, and is essential to all tailoring projects. It is a flat depiction of the 3-D design, and the model for creation of the future garment. Pattern-making entails interpretation of a garment concept from a sketch, a photo, or other existing products, into a paper representation or template for use in production of a finished garment style (Keiser & Garner, 2012:328). In ready-to-wear clothing manufacture, the pattern-maker is responsible for understanding a new design and its reproduction into a pattern (Di Lorenzo, 2010:47). However, in traditional tailoring, the tailor creates a new pattern that matches the measurements of a single customer (ibid). Although there are some slight differences in the process of pattern-making in ready-to-wear and traditional tailoring, the fundamentals of the pattern are essentially the same.
Pattern-making is a crucial step in clothing product development (Keiser & Garner, 2012:328). Pattern-making methods constitute high technical skills, thus, individuals with pattern-making expertise are valued as development of the skills involved to the highest level takes long (ibid.). Aldrich (2008:5) acknowledges the importance of pattern-making skills by asserting that the success of a design depends on the quality of pattern-making and cutting skills. Tate (2004:80) equally adds that a good grasp of pattern-making skills can provide custom-designers with the flexibility to create attractive designs. The demand for pattern-making expertise in custom-tailoring is however, even more crucial. Custom-tailors mostly create patterns from scratch to meet the varied customers’ unique design and fit needs (Koskennurmi-Sivonen & Pietarila, 2009:256). Chase and Quinn (2003:70-71), however, point out that creation of patterns from scratch demands a high degree of pattern-making skills. In recognition of the complexity of pattern-making skills, Knowles (2005:xv) suggests that it is important to teach students pattern-making theory alongside detailed drawing of the pattern-making processes. Knowles asserts that learning patternmaking skills can only be effective if a student understands the processes and steps of completing a pattern, as well as how all of the pieces work together in a finished garment. From the literature, it is evident that acquisition of pattern-making skills requires a highly focused skills training to transfer the underpinning knowledge and associated skills to students.
According to Keiser and Garner (2012:334), patterns for new garments can be acquired through the following pattern-making methods: (1) draping, which is a 3-D method; (2) flat-pattern drafting; (3) drafting patterns directly from body measurements; and (4) drafting a pattern from an existing garment. The latter three categories represent 2-D methods.
Pattern draping is a design process in which patterns are developed by pinning and marking fabric pieces placed on a body form, or human body, into the desired shape (Knowles, 2005:1; Keiser & Garner, 2012:334). The draped pieces of fabric are then corrected and transferred onto paper. These are then converted into a 2-D paper pattern for cutting out garment pieces. This method is usually reserved for higher price point garments. It therefore follows that custom-tailors who have knowledge of pattern draping may have a greater advantage over those without. Flat pattern-making is the most widely used method in clothing manufacture (Keiser & Garner, 2012:330). Flat pattern-making is a design process in which a basic block is used to create a pattern for a new style. Individuals who are new to the field of flat pattern-making should approach the process by first learning how to draft the basic sloper set (basic dress) (Knowles, 2005:43). These can then be traced onto pattern paper for further manipulation or development into new or more complex styles.
Almost any style can be developed from the basic dress which forms the foundation for pattern-making, fit, and design (Joseph-Armstrong, 2010:38). The flat patternmaking method relies on three major pattern-making principles and techniques which include: dart manipulation, added fullness, and contouring. These principles should be well understood by individuals engaged in the learning process (Joseph- Armstrong, 2010:69). The flat pattern-making technique is not only logical, but can also easily be demonstrated. This makes it essential to fashion designers in general (Zamkoff & Price, 2009:vii). Knowles (2005:2) points out that provision of clothing that conforms more closely to the body, using non-stretch fabrics requires shaping techniques such as darts, pleats, gathers, or style lines at strategic areas of the garment. This enables the fabric to fit smoothly over body contours. This is particularly important when making patterns for the adult female form, which has many convex and concave curves. Pattern drafting is a design process which begins from scratch for each garment style (Keiser & Garner, 2012:332-3). Body measurements are used to develop patterns by adding style lines and ease to form a 2-D paper pattern for the design. This can be done manually or by a computer-based programme. Although tedious and time consuming, drafting original patterns can be very useful in creating unique garments, and for designing products for individuals with unique and-or exceptional fitting needs. The finished paper pattern is then placed on top of the fabric as a guide to cutting out the garment pieces (Knowles, 2005:1). Part of effective pattern-making skills entails the ability to determine the right amount of ease. Ease is the degree of roominess in a garment (Brown & Rice, 2014:219).
CHAPTER 1: THE STUDY IN PERSPECTIVE
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1.2 KEY CONCEPTS OF THE STUDY
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.4 RATIONALE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1.5 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE RESEARCH STUDY
1.6 LAYOUT OF THE THESIS
1.7 CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF KNOWLEDGE OF CLOTHING PRODUCT QUALITY AND ARMENT MAKING PROCESSES
2.3 THE CONCEPT OF QUALITY IN GARMENTS
2.4 DIMENSIONS OF CLOTHING PRODUCT QUALITY
2.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON CURRICULUM
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 CURRICULUM THEORY
3.3 APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
3.4 CURRICULUM AS A PROCESS
3.5 THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
3.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
4.3 PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS
4.4 RESEARCH DESIGN
4.5 THE TYPE OF CASE STUDY DESIGN AND SELECTION OF THE CASE
4.6 DATA COLLECTION METHODS FOR PHASE 1 OF THE STUDY
4.7 DATA ANALYSIS
4.8 QUALITY CRITERIA OF THE STUDY
4.9 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
4.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
4.11 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5: THE STUDY FINDINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 THE MAIN FINDINGS OF THE COLLECTIVE SUB-CASES
5.3 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION OF THE MAIN RESEARCH FINDINGS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 KNOWLEDGE OF CLOTHING PRODUCTS AND PROCESSES ACQUIRED BY CUSTOM-TAILORING APPRENTICES IN NAIROBI, KENYA
6.3 REASONS FOR THE CURRICULUM OUTCOMES IN TA IN TAILORING
6.4 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CURRICULUM MODEL
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMEDATIONS, STUDY CONTRIBUTIONS, SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 CONCLUSIONS
8.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
8.4 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY
8.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH AND STUDY LIMITATIONS
8.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
LIST OF REFERENCES
