ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF TOURISM IN A DESTINATION

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INTRODUCTION

The popularity of a tourist destination can be described as being fragile, which means that a tourist destination can forfeit its popularity if it is struck by a disaster or if the tourist product loses its favourite position within the existing market. When tourists learn about such occurrences, they soon find alternative destinations.
Zimbabwe has lost its popularity as a tourist destination and the tourism industry in that country is facing hardships as a result of a political imbroglio. The tourist industry in Zimbabwe experienced rapid growth after the country gained independence in 1980. During the past decade, tourist arrivals increased at an average annual rate of 17, 5%, whilst tourist receipts increased at an average annual rate of 18% in US$ terms and 25% in Z$ terms (Zimbabwe Tourism Authority, 2002:3). However, due to the economic, social and political situation that prevailed in Zimbabwe after the turn of the century; the tourism sector has produced its worst performance in the ensuing period than during any period since the country gained independence (Muleya, 2002:1). The country experienced an 11% drop in tourist arrivals in the period 1999-2000 and an 8% drop in foreign currency receipts within the same period (Zimbabwe Tourism Authority, 2002:4).
Although the tourism industry has experienced a negative growth rate, the Zimbabwe Tourism Authority argues that the industry is reviving and that the growth rate cannot be compared to the rate that prevailed in the 1980’s and 1990’s (ZTA, 2004). The negative growth rate can be ascribed to both the economic and the political situation that has prevailed in the country (Greer, 2003). The economy and the politics of the country are inextricably interwoven. Therefore, it cannot beexpected of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe to restore or stimulate the economy when the political role players continue to bicker over the way forward (Muleya, 2008:2). This chapter provides the background and orientation of the research that is being reported. It reviews the problem as well as its setting. Initially, the problem is stated and its investigation justified. The motivation for and purpose of the study is discussed in the context of destination branding in developing countries. This discussion is followed by an exposition of the envisaged significance and contribution of the study. Thereafter the objectives of the investigation, the research framework and the methodology applied are contextualised and justified. Finally, the limitations, delimitations and research outline are discussed and a summary is provided.

BACKGROUND AND ORIENTATION OF THE RESEARCH THEME

Zimbabwe is endowed with unique tourism products and the country has been described as Africa’s paradise (RETOSA, 2004:8). It is home to the majestic Victoria Falls and magnificent wildlife reserves and is blessed with an extraordinary landscape. The country is situated on a high plateau in southern central Africa, between the Zambezi and the Limpopo rivers. It is a landlocked country that is bordered by Mozambique to the east and Zambia to the north, South Africa to the south and Botswana to the south west. Being a unique and fascinating holiday destination, Zimbabwe’s tourism industry has the potential to become one of the most important pillars of the country’s overall economic development, if all the available resources are fully utilised (ZTA, 2004).
During the 1980s, after Zimbabwe had gained its independence, the new government decided to maintain the status quo as far as tourism was concerned. It continued to target the Western tourism market, which is characterised by high-spending tourists (Child, 1990:4). During the period between 1980 and 1999, the tourism industry grew rapidly. This growth was reflected in the increase in the number of tourist arrivals and receipts from Western markets and also in the construction of many hotels, lodges and restaurants. A considerable number of tour operators an travel agents were operating in the country (The National Consultative Forum, 2001:6-10). It was only in 1999 that, as a result of its controversial land reform policy, the country began to experience a sharp decline in the number of tourist arrivals. The decline was particularly marked in respect of the major Western markets. Consequently, the country suffered a major decrease in its tourism receipts (Sachikonye, 2005) due to an increase in negative publicity on the international media.

Abstract
DEDICATION
LIST OF TABLE
LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 BACKGROUND AND ORIENTATION OF THE RESEARCH THEME
1.3 THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
1.4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY
1.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.7 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.8 THE RESEARCH STRUCTURE
1.9 METHODOLOGY
1.10 LIMITATIONS
1.11 DELIMITATIONS
1.12 DEFINITION OF TERMS
1.13 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 2: DESTINATION BRANDING AS A KEY COMPETITIVE POSITIONING STRATEGY IN DESTINATION MARKETING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF TOURISM IN A DESTINATION
2.3 THE SIGNIFICANCE AND ROLE OF DESTINATION MARKETING
2.3.1 Destination marketing organisations
2.3.2 The role of intermediaries in destination marketing
2.3.3 Support systems for destination marketing
2.3.4 Characteristics of tourism destinations
2.3.5 Destination marketing
2.3.6 Market segmentation as an element of destination marketing
2.3.7 Target marketing
2.3.8 Developing a marketing-mix strategy for a destination
2.3.9 Marketing and communication for a destination
2.3.10 Crisis and its impact on tourism marketing
2.4 ORIGINS AND KEY FEATURES OF BRANDING
2.4.1 Branding as a key strategic function
2.4.2 Key features and characteristics of a brand
2.4.3 Definitions and orientation of destination branding
2.4.4 Alternate definitions of brands
2.4.5 Benefits of destination branding
2.4.6 Dimensions of branding
2.4.6.1 Mind-share branding
2.4.6.2 Emotional branding
2.4.6.3 Viral branding
2.4.6.4 The cultural branding
2.4.6.5 Nation branding
2.4.7 Public diplomacy as an element of destination branding
2.5 SYNTHESIZING THE NATURE OF BRANDING IN DESTINATION MARKETING
2.5.1 Destination branding as a marketing task
2.5.2 Tools for destination branding
2.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3: THE DESTINATION BRANDING PROCESS AND COMPETITIVE POSITIONING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 THE DESTINATION-BRANDING PROCESS
3.2.1 The phases in building a destination-brand
3.2.2 Destination-brand equity
3.2.3 Destination-brand identity
3.2.4 Destination-brand personality
3.2.5 Destination-brand architecture
3.2.6 Strategic brand management
3.2.6.1 The external customer brand perspective
3.2.6.2 The internal brand perspective
3.2.6.3 Other branding models
3.2.7 Destination branding on the website
3.2.7.1 Benefits of a destination website brand strategy in Tourism
3.2.8 The role of Government in destination branding
3.2.9 Stakeholder power in destination branding
3.2.10 The role of the media in destination branding
3.3 CHALLENGES IN DESTINATION BRANDING
3.4 RE-BRANDING A DESTINATION
3.5 POSITIONING AS AN ELEMENT OF DESTINATION BRANDING
3.5.1 The definition of positioning
3.5.2 Internal destination positioning
3.5.3 Benefits of positioning a destination
3.5.4 Positioning strategies
3.5.5 The positioning process
3.5.5.1 Effective positioning
3.5.5.2 Market positioning
3.5.5.3 Psychological positioning
3.5.6 Steps in positioning a destination
3.5.7 Positioning a destination by using points of parity and points of difference
3.5.8 Updating the position of a destination over time
3.5.9 Crafting an umbrella position for the destination
3.5.10 Destination competitiveness as a positioning tool
3.6 REPOSITIONING STRATEGIES FOR A DESTINATION
3.6.1 Steps in repositioning a destination
3.6.2 Sustaining a competitive position for a destination
3.7 IMAGE AS AN ELEMENT OF DESTINATION BRANDING AND POSITIONING
3.7.1 Developing a destination-brand image
3.7.2 The influence of image on a destination brand and on positioning
3.7.3 Factors that impact on the image of a destination
3.7.4 Attractiveness of a destination as an attribute of image
3.7.5 The relationship between destination brand image and personality
3.7.6 Perceived risk and its impact on the image of a destination
3.8 PROPOSED FLOW CHART REGARDING DESTINATION BRANDING AND POSITIONING
3.8.1 Destination branding committee
3.8.2 Destination planning and analysis
3.8.3 Destination brand image analysis
3.8.4 Brand development process
3.8.5 Brand-positioning process
3.8.6 Brand implementation
3.8.7 Brand management and evaluation
3.9 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4: APPROACHES TO DESTINATION BRANDING AND POSITIONING IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 APPROACHES TO DESTINATION BRANDING IN SEVERAL SELECTED COUNTRIES
4.2.1 Denmar
4.2.1.1 Issues emerging from the case study of Denmark
4.2.2 United States of America
4.2.2.1 Strategies for marketing the USA during 9/11 crisis
4.2.2.2 Major issues emerged from the case study
4.2.3 Israel
4.2.3.1 Tourism crisis during the 2000 era
4.2.3.2 The management of the crisis in Israel
4.2.3.3 Major issues emerged from the case study of IsraelSri-Lanka
4.2.4.1 Marketing Sri-Lankan Tourism during a period of crisis
4.2.4.2 Major issues that emerged from the crisis situation
4.2.5 Nigeria
4.2.5.1 Re-branding Nigeria as the Heart of Africa
4.2.6 Fiji
4.2.6.1 The impact of the coups in 1987 and 2000 on Tourism in Fiji
4.2.6.2 Tourism marketing in Fiji after the coups
4.3 A FRAMEWORK FOR DESTINATION BRANDING
4.4 DESTINATION BRANDING AND DIPLOMACY CAMPAIGNS
4.4.1 Scotland
4.4.2 Britain
4.4.3 Spain
4.4.4 Costa Rica
4.4.5 Central America
4.4.6 La Reunion
4.4.7 South Africa
4.4.8 Analysis of strategies for destination branding campaigns
4.4.9 Lessons learnt from the branding approaches
4.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5: A SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS OF ZIMBABWE REGARDING DESTINATION BRANDING AND POSITIONING
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 AN OVERVIEW OF ZIMBABWE AS A TOURIST DESTINATION
5.3 THE STRUCTURE OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY IN ZIMBABWE
5.3.1 The public sector
5.3.2 The Zimbabwe Tourism Authority (ZTA)
5.3.3 Registration and grading of tourism establishments
5.3.4 The Private Sector
5.3.5 Functions of Zimbabwe Council for Tourism (ZCT)
5.4 BACKGROUND OF TOURISM MARKETING IN ZIMBABWE
5.5 DESTINATION BRANDING IN ZIMBABWE
5.6 AN EVALUATION OF DESTINATION BRANDING IN ZIMBABWE
5.6.1 Assessment of the current markets and focusing on the future markets
5.6.2 Auditing and analysing the appeal of the destination to the target market
5.6.3 Development of strategic objectives and marketing-mix
5.6.4 Creating an organisation to implement tourism objectives
5.6.5 Implementing and evaluating tourism marketing strategies
5.7 THE SWOT MATRIX OF DESTINATION BRANDING IN ZIMBABWE………. 202
5.8 MATTERS THAT COULD AFFECT FUTURE DESTINATION BRANDING AND POSITIONING IN ZIMBABWE
5.8.1 Policies and political matters in the destination
5.8.1.1 Policies
5.8.1.2 Visa regime
5.8.1.3 Politics
5.8.2 The economic environment
5.8.3 The social environment
5.8.4 The technological environment
5.8.5 The ecological environment
5.8.6 General conditions in Zimbabwe
5.8.7 Resource allocation, amenities and activities
5.9 LESSONS LEARNT FROM THE ZIMBABWEAN SITUATION
5.10 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 6: THE EMPIRICAL RESEARCH PROCESS REGARDING BRANDING AND POSITIONING OFZIMBABWE AS A TOURIST DESTINATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 THE RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGN
6.2.1 Developing a research strategy
6.2.2 The sampling design
6.2.3 Developing a sampling plan
6.2.4 Selecting a sampling method
6.2.5 The population sample frame
6.2.6 Data collection methods
6.2.6.1 Research survey
6.2.6.2 In-depth interview guide
6.2.6.3 The questionnaire
6.2.6.4 The layout of the questionnaire
6.3 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
6.4 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
6.4.1 The chi-square
6.4.2 Chi-square test for independence
6.4.3 Correlation analysis
6.5 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
6.5.1 Validity of the instruments
6.5.2 Reliability of the instruments
6.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7: FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY REGARDING ZIMBABWE’S BRANDING AND POSITIONING
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 GENERAL INFORMATION ON THE RESPONDENTS
7.2.1Type of organisation
7.2.2 Type of private sector stakeholders
7.2.3 Number of yearsfor which the organisations have been operating
7.3 AWARENESS OF DESTINATION BRANDING
7.3.1 Destination (country) that is the best example of branding
7.3.2 Key features of destination branding
7.4 RESPONSES REGARDING ZIMBABWE AS A TOURIST DESTINATION
7.4.1 Adequacy of marketing resources
7.4.2 Negative comments regarding Zimbabwe as a tourist destination
7.5STAKEHOLDERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS ZIMBABWE’S BRANDING AND COMPETITIVE POSITIONING
7.5.1 Stakeholders attitudes towards the Zimbabwean brand
7.5.2 Selling points of the Zimbabwean tourism brand
7.5.3 Impressions about the Zimbabwe’s tourism brand
7.5.4 Positioning and benchmarking Zimbabwe
7.5.5 Most commonly used methods to communicate branding and positioning
7.6 CHALLENGES IN RESPECT OF BRANDING IN ZIMBABWE
7.6.1 The use of a logo as a key element in Zimbabwe’s branding in future
7.6.2 The most appropriate strategy that could be used to reposition Zimbabwe as a tourist destination
7.6.3 Key matters to be addressed in Zimbabwe’s branding
7.6.4 Review of Zimbabwe’s destination-brand status
7.6.5 Development of a conceptual framework for destination branding
and positioningSUMMARY
CHAPTER 8: T0WARDS A FRAMEWORK FOR DESTINATION BRANDING AND REPOSITIONING
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 AN OVERVIEW OF CARDINAL FACTORS IN DESTINATION BRANDING AND REPOSITIONING
8.3 DEVELOPING A DESTINATION-BRANDING AND POSITIONING FRAMEWORK
8.3.1 Market analysis
8.3.2 Brand development
8.3.3 Brand positioning
8.3.4 Brand implementation and evaluation
8.3.4.1 Developing-destination brand equity
8.3.4.2 Destination-brand identity
8.3.4.3 Brand communication
8.3.4.4 Brand monitoring and evaluation
8.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE DESTINATION BRANDING AND POSITIONING FRAMEWORK
8.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE PROPOSED FRAMEWORK AND THE EXISTING BRANDING AND POSITIONING MODELS
8.5.1 Market analysis
8.5.2 The competitor analysis
8.5.3 The importance of image
8.5.4 Brand equity
8.5.5 Functionality and integration
8.6 DISCUSSION
8.7 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 REVISITING THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
9.3 AN EVALUATION OF THE RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS
9.3.1 The importance of branding and positioning in destination marketing
9.3.2 Implications of branding and positioning in destination marketing
9.3.3 Factors to be considered in destination branding and positioning
9.3.4 Challenges of destination branding and positioning in Zimbabwe
9.4 A PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR STRATEGIC DESTINATION BRANDING AND POSITIONINGanalysi
9.4 2 Destination brand development
9.4.3 Destination brand positioning
9.4.4 Brand implementation, monitoring and evaluation
9.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
9.6 ISSUES THAT REQUIRE FURTHER RESEARCH
9.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCESAPPENDICES
Appendix 1: Covering letter and questionnaires
Appendix 2: Summary of hypotheses
Appendix 3: Inferential statistics