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Beneficial effects of honey in the gastrointestinal tract
As a functional food, honey has several nutritional benefits such as increasing the level of vitamin C and β-Carotene in blood plasma. Honey has also been shown to be a gastro protective agent against microbes, the most common being H. pylori (Kim 2005, Manyi-Loh et al., 2010). This bacterium produces ammonia which creates an environment that promotes the survival of this microbe, before it infiltrates the gastric epithelium. Ammonia in the GIT causes a chain reaction, leading to cell death and vacuolation of gastric cells resulting in inflammation and associated gastroenteritis (Suerbaum, Josenhans 1999, Kim 2005), gastric carcinomas and peptic ulcers (Kim 2005). Prevention of these ailments is two-fold: firstly to reduce the effects of ammonia and then to allow the healing and subsequent restoration of the structural integrity and function of the gastric mucosal barrier. Manyi-Loh et al., (2010) investigated the ability of extracts of three South African honeys to inhibit H. pylori. All honey samples had activity at honey concentrations greater than 10% with the lowest activity at 75% (v/v). In rat studies, honey reduced ulcers caused by indomethacin, alcohol, ammonia and aspirin (Bogdanov et al., 2008) and this was due to the ROS scavenging activity and anti-inflammatory activity of honey. IBD is an inflammatory disorder of the intestines of the GIT and includes CD and UC. In CD inflammation can affect any part of the GIT although inflammation is commonly located in the small bowel and colon while in UC inflammation is restricted to the large bowel and rectum (Vezza et al., 2016). As the cause of IBD is not completely known, treatment mostly focuses on the eradication of inflammation and maintaining the non-inflamed state in the intestine. To achieve this therapies include the use of aminosalicylates and immunosuppressant’s, however, long term use could lead to chronic side effects (Vezza et al., 2016). In the GIT functional foods and nutraceutical products are attractive treatment options for the prevention, treatment and maintenance of a GIT free of inflammation.
Reagents, equipment & disposable plastic ware
Sodium phosphate dibasic dihydrate (Na2HPO4·2H2O), sodium phosphate (NaH2PO4), sodium chloride (NaCl), dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO), xylenol orange, ammonium ferrous sulphate (FeSO4·(NH4)2SO4·6H2O), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl), Glc, Fru, maltose (MAL) and sucrose (SUC) were of analytical quality and were obtained from Merck Chemicals, Modderfontein South Africa (SA). Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), Folin-Ciocalteu’s (F-C) reagent, sodium carbonate anhydrous (Na2CO3), GA, CA, CAT, QUE, 2,2’-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH), ABTS (2,2’-Azo-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfuric acid) diamonium salt), dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA), sorbitol, potassium peroxodisulfate (K2S2O8), Trolox, pepsin from porcine gastric mucosa, pancreatin from porcine pancreas and fluorescein sodium salt were obtained from the Sigma-Aldrich Company, Atlasville, SA. Dulbecco’s Modified Essential Medium (DMEM), foetal calf serum (FCS), antibiotic solution (streptomycin, penicillin and fungizone) were obtained from Highveld Biological Company, Johannesburg, SA. Trypsin was obtained from Life Technologies Laboratories and was supplied by Gibco BRL products, Johannesburg, SA. Sartorius cellulose acetate membrane filters 0.22 µm were obtained from National Separations, Johannesburg, SA. Equipment used included: Lambda LS5OB spectrophotometer from Perkin Elmer, Boston, MA, USA supplied by Separations Scientific, Honeydew, SA, a BioTek plate reader purchased from Analytical and Diagnostic Products (ADP) Johannesburg, SA was used. A Hermle Z300 centrifuge, a Crison GLP 21 pH Meter and Eppendorf pipettes from Eppendorf AG Hamburg, Germany were all supplied by the Scientific Laboratory Equipment Company (LASEC), Cape Town, SA. A FLUOstar OPTIMA plate reader from BMG labtechnologies, Offenburg, Germany and a water bath from EcoBath Labotec, Cape Town, SA. Disposable plastic ware included, 96 well plates, 50 mL, 15 mL tubes and pipette tips (10, 25, 100, 200, and 1000 µL) which were obtained from Greiner Bio-one also supplied by LASEC.
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Literature review
2.1 Honey as a functional food
2.2 Medicinal properties of honey
2.3. Antioxidant molecules and cellular antioxidant pathways
2.4 Antimicrobial activity of honey
2.5 Anti-inflammatory activity of honey
2.6 Gastrointestinal digestion
2.7 Digestion of honey associated compounds
2.8 Beneficial effects of honey in the gastrointestinal tract
2.9 Background to this study
2.10 Aim and objectives
Chapter 3: Elucidating the effect of gastrointestinal digestion on the antioxidant properties of honey
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Materials
3.3 Methods
3.4 Results and discussion
3.5 Conclusion
Chapter 4: Antibacterial activity of honey samples and associated antibacterial components: sugars, hydrogen peroxide, methylglyoxal and polyphenols
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials
4.3 Methods
4.4 Results and discussion
4.5 Conclusion
Chapter 5: Anti-inflammatory activity of undigested and in vitro digested honey samples and polyphenols
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Materials
5.3 Methods
5.4 Results and Discussion
Chapter 6: Concluding discussion
Limitations and recommendations
References
