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CHAPTER 3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF
INTRODUCTION
In order to discuss the research question with regard to the development of the adolescent self, this chapter put forward different views on personality development and personality theories, as well as how an adolescent’s identity develops through the process of identity formation. Being a fundamental part of the self, self-concept, self-esteem, and self-presentation were also analysed. Another essential aspect that formed part of this chapter was social development and the role that peers and groups play in the life of the teenager.
PERSONALITY
Meyer (1997:12) defines personality as ‘constantly changing but relatively stable organisation of all physical, psychological and spiritual characteristics of the individual which determine his or her behaviour’. The term personality, therefore, refers to that which makes people who they are, that which allows others to predict a person’s behaviour. In Saucier and Simonds (2006:109,110) personality is defined as ‘individuals’ characteristic patterns of thought, emotion and behaviour, together with the psychological mechanisms – hidden or not – behind those patterns.’ Woldt and Toman (2005:29) declare that ‘the personality is essentially a verbal replica of the self’. The above-mentioned definitions stress characteristics within the individual, while many other definitions emphasise external traits, such as the role individuals adopt or the status they have achieved in society, their external appearance, and the reactions of others towards them.
One of the most interesting and important traits of people is that they are different from one another. Individuation is when a person wants to differentiate himself from others by emphasising his uniqueness or individuality (Baron & Byrne 1997:329). These differences contribute to the uniqueness of each person. There is, however, a complex interaction between the different traits within a person as mentioned previously. The human being functions as a whole and it is the sum of his traits, physical and psychic, in which his uniqueness is settled. Personality psychology revolves around the human being in totality with consideration for the individual differences between people (Möller 1993:3). The dimensions of personality are reflected in the question: How am I? It doesn’t refer to deep concepts, but rather to how you are in general, and especially how others see you. A person’s behaviour and emotions are often influenced by what he thinks others think about him (Awerbuck & Swart 2014:55). With regard to this study, it is important to bear in mind that the above question is one that the adolescent frequently struggles with. He is extremely easily influenced by others and relies on what others think about him. Many different definitions exist with regard to the concept of personality that emphasises the complexity thereof. Möller (1993:4, 5) mentions the following definitions of personality:
The outward appearance and outward observable traits of the person.
The sum of a person’s traits, regardless of the connection between the different traits.
The interaction that exists between the different personality characteristics, thus, influencing each other within the person.
A mechanism that helps a human to adjust to his surroundings.
It is the subjective consciousness of how he sees himself (self-image), his feelings and thoughts, objectives, ideals etc.
In addition to the above, Meyer (1997:13) points out that character, temperament and nature, as well as the self, are concepts that are related to personality. Figure 3.1 explains each of these concepts:
The three aspects of character, temperament and nature, and the self are interconnected to contribute to the personality of a person. The one will not develop completely or naturally without the other.
Personality Theories
Most psychologists agree that an individual’s personality and context influence their behaviour, but there are different opinions as to exactly what role is played by personality and context. Some would emphasise the role of the person, others the role of the situation and others the interaction between the two. Meyer (1997:14) distinguishes between three viewpoints with regard to the above-mentioned, as pointed out in Table 3.1 below:
Based on Table 3.1, it is clear that the role of the different characteristics of people and the context in which they exist will interact to determine specific behaviour. Many different theories exist with regard to personality. The different personality theories are very complex and can be classified in many different ways. Meyer (1997:18) focuses on the theories according to their historical origin as reflected in Table 3.2 below:
Table 3.2 makes it clear that theorists’ views differ with regard to what kind of characteristics will determine a human’s behaviour. Most theorists supporting the same approach differ in their views within that specific approach. The following figure indicates different views on personality development (Mroczek& Little 2006:3):
According to the above, one can see that personality development was defined by broad, but individual differences in different characteristics that are displayed by most people.
Units of analysis in personality psychology
The core personality is made up of four units or domains, namely traits, values, abilities and narratives. In Table 3.3 a short explanation is provided for each of these domains (Roberts & Wood 2006:13-16):
The different views and concepts of personality and all the other aspects constituting a person are very complex and cannot be completely separated from one another. The one will always influence the other, resulting in the way a person thinks about himself and how he behaves. When a connection is made between the domains of personality and adolescents, it is most likely that each of the domains is still unfolding during this developmental stage.
The development of the personality
Seeing that this research is based on a psycho-educational perspective, it is necessary to study the development of the personality, especially those of adolescents. Jung believes that personality development is a dynamic process that takes place throughout one’s life. According to him, the primary developmental level of a person is self-actualisation, because his personality is determined by what he hopes to become (progression) as well as by what he was (regression). Table 3.4 provides a short summary of the different views of Freud, Jung and Rogers on the development of the personality:
The adolescent’s responses to experiences trigger how their feelings and thoughts work together, resulting in visible behaviour which are mechanisms that can promote change and development of the personality during the adolescent years (Downshire & Grew 2014:70). Firstly, the way in which a teenager responds to contingencies (the rewards and punishments) of a given setting (Donnellan, Trzesniewski & Robins 2006:298). Secondly, adolescents have the ability to change their own personalities through self-reflective abilities. Thirdly, observation of significant others is the pathway to learning new behaviour and seeing that adolescents spend an increasing amount of time with peers, they have opportunities to observe the personalities of friends and acquaintances. Lastly, reflected appraisals may shape personality. This refers to the perceptions of others that have long been implicated in self-esteem development (Donnellan et al. 2006:299).
Temperament and development
As previously mentioned temperament forms part of the personality and refers to a person’s capacity to respond emotionally to environmental events and includes attributes such as activity level, irritability, fearfulness and sociability. Shaffer and Kipp (2010:443, 444) discuss the following three temperamental profiles in Figure 3.3
The three broad temperamental profiles of easy, difficult and slow to warm up may persist over time and may influence a child’s adjustment to different settings later in life. Research done by Thomas and Chess found that early temperamental characteristics sometimes do and sometimes don’t carry over into later life (Shaffer & Kipp 2010:444).
Based on this research, the question must be asked if mobile usage influences the personality of the adolescent or if the personality influences the mobile phone practices. One cannot help to wonder about the role of the teenager’s temperament when he uses his mobile phone to connect and communicate with others.
IDENTITY
Identity is a broad concept that includes various self-terms and therefore integrates all the different aspects and roles of the self (Roberts & Wood 2006:17; Woolfolk 2010:86). Identity is the complex answer to the question: ‘Who am I?’ The socio-analytic theory suggests that the components of personality are organised around two psychological aspects: the identity (self-reports) and the reputation (observer reports – the perspective of others). Self-report methods will include trait ratings, self-concept measures such as self-esteem, as well as measures of goals and values. Observer methods will include ratings of behaviour, projective tests, implicit measures and physiological factors (Roberts & Wood 2006:16).
Adolescent self-conceptions and self-evaluations provide the framework for the identity formation process. Therefore, the development of the self and the identity development are closely linked. Rosen and Patterson (2011:84) explain that identity can be defined as ‘a sense of who one is based on who one has been and who one can realistically imagine oneself to be in the future’. Just like personality, the sense of identity is multi-faceted and includes both chosen and assigned components. As a result, aspects such as membership in social groups, gender race and ethnicity can form an important element of one’s personal identity.
Another important aspect of identity formation is that a person’s contact with his environment is based on his definition of himself. If a person thinks of himself as shy and inhibited, he will set up a different kind of relationship with his environment than someone whose definition of self is daring and extroverted (Woldt &Toman 2005:29).
Erik Erikson’s model of identity achievement
Erikson theorised that as young people move into adolescence, and experience changes associated with puberty, the expectations and responses of others and society change as well and stimulate the process of identity formation, which Erikson identified as the central task of adolescence. A moratorium period during adolescence allows young people the freedom to experiment with different identities and adult roles. Ultimately, they must make a series of choices that lead to commitments in a variety of domains, including personal, sexual/romantic, ideological and occupational. The process by which people achieve a unified personal identity is individual and identity development continues throughout the lifespan (Hoffner 2011:317). To Erikson, forging a sense of identity is the major developmental task of the adolescent. He proposed that an adolescent experiences the stage of identity vs. confusion in which peer relationships are very important (Woolfolk 2010:83). This is the reason why most adolescents move away from their parents emotionally and move more towards their peer groups. The successful resolution of this stage requires the formation of a mature identity whereas unsuccessful resolution is characterised by a sense of confusion about one’s role. This conflict between identity and confusion is described as identity crisis to refer to adolescents’ serious questioning of their essential personal characteristics, their view of themselves, their concern about how others view them and their doubts about the meaning and purpose of their existence (Rosen & Patterson 2010:84).
Erikson declared that adolescence is the optimal time for deconstructing one’s childhood identity and reconstructing a viable adult identity (Jaffe 1998:174). The identity crisis is likely to be resolved when the three dimensions of identity (ego, personal, social) merge (Jaffe 1998:176). When a child moves into adolescence, he starts to develop the ability to think abstractly and begins to understand the perspectives of others. Important physical changes start taking place, so with the developing minds and bodies, adolescents must confront the issue of constructing an identity that will form a firm basis for adulthood (Woolfolk 2010:86). In addition to all the above, Erikson also characterised identity achievement as a healthy and adaptive development, which is true because identity achievers do enjoy higher self-esteem and are less self-conscious or preoccupied with personal concerns than their peers in the other three identity statuses. Erikson viewed that the achievement of identity is a prerequisite for establishing a strong intimate relationship with another person and can be a painful process for the adolescent if he fails to establish an identity. Erikson believed that a person without a clear identity will become depressed and will lack self-confidence and will be trapped in the diffusion status. Erikson calls this a negative identity and researchers have confirmed this by suggesting that many adolescents stuck in the diffusion status are highly apathetic and express a sense of hopelessness about the future (Shaffer & Kipp 2010:506).
Identity formation
James Marcia’s identity status model clarified and tested Erikson’s theoretical model of identity. He studied the different ways that adolescents construct a personal identity. James extended Erikson’s work by stating that not only do adolescents go through crises to explore their identities, but they also make decisions that he calls commitments (Rosen 2007:74). Marcia identified four ways (identity statuses) in which adolescents may be expected to resolve the identity. These four statuses are depicted in Table 3.5 (Jaffe 1998:177; Rosen 2007:74; Rosen & Patterson 2010:88):
In the identity diffusion stage adolescents do not actively explore or commit to adult roles and values and they don’t reach a conclusion about whom they are or what they want to do with their lives (Jaffe 1998:178). They might also become apathetic and withdrawn with little hope for the future, or they will become openly rebellious (Woolfolk 2010:86). Less cognitive complexity is involved and lower levels of formal operational thought than those in identity achievement or identity moratorium stages (Rosen & Patterson 2010:88). In the identity foreclosure stage, adolescents have committed to specific goals, values, roles and beliefs but without having first thought through or investigated realistic alternatives and they accept the guidance of others of submitting to social pressures (Jaffe 1998: 178). Rosen and Patterson (2010:88) state that in this stage, the openness to experience is low and lower levels of formal operational thought than those in identity achievement or identity moratorium status. They exhibit high levels of conformity and endorsement of authoritarian values, low levels of autonomy and high reliance on parents are present.
The moratorium stage is where adolescents consider different points of view and experiment with various adult roles but have not made the final commitment (Jaffe 1998:179). They will however, demonstrate formal operational thinking when they consider identity related issues (Rosen & Patterson 2010:88). During the last stage, identity achievement, adolescents have already experienced identity diffusion and have committed to a life plan after investigated a variety of adult roles (Jaffe1998:179). They demonstrate planned, rational decision-making characteristics of formal operational thought and high level of moral reasoning. These individuals can persevere when they encounter difficult problems, avoid procrastination and perform well in academic settings. Pro-social tendencies will be exhibited (helping others) and they usually have relationships that are characterised by a high level of intimacy. Successful identity development is associated with psychological well-being (Rosen & Patterson 2010:88). These statuses are not necessarily consistent across the different domains of an adolescent’s life. He can be in diffusion regarding career goals, in foreclosure – sexuality and in identity achieved regarding family roles. Most adolescents experience more than one of these statuses (Jaffe 1998:179). Table 3.6 provides impressions about the process of identity formation among adolescents and young adults (Rosen 2007:75):
The information in Table 3.6 reflects a clear picture of how identity formation can develop from adolescence to young adulthood. The younger the person, the more identity diffusion he will experience and the older he is, the more identity achievement he will have achieved. Although Erikson stated that the identity crisis occurs in early adolescence and is often resolved by age 15 to 18, it was shown through studies that the vast majority of 12 to 18 year-olds was identity diffused or foreclosed. According to research on this topic, identity formation takes a bit of time and that most adolescents achieve a sense of identity during the college years (late adolescence), but the identity formation process doesn’t stop there, many adults are still struggling with identity issues (Shaffer & Kipp 2010:505).
Erikson, Piaget, Kohlberg and Gilligan were of the opinion that formal reasoning is a prerequisite to adolescent identity formation. Perspective taking, social comparison, increased self-awareness allow adolescents to view themselves in a new light, because self-understanding is rooted in understanding others (Jaffe 1998:189). Egocentric thinking would be expected to have an inhibiting effect on identity achievement. Identity formation in adolescence differs from childhood mainly because adolescents are more aware of their identity and the infinite number of possible identities they can adopt.
When asked to describe themselves preadolescents display concrete operational thinking. They refer to general traits and feelings and begin to add interpersonal qualities that imply social comparison (I am friendly, popular etc.) (Jaffe 1998:190).
