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Global Malaria trends
In 2017, an estimated 219 million cases of malaria occurred worldwide (203–262 million)1, an increase of almost two million compared to 2016 and of these, 90% were in the WHO African Region (92%), followed by the South-East Asia Region (5%), and then the Eastern Mediterranean Region (2%). The World Health Organisation (WHO) has targeted malaria for elimination which can be achieved through strengthening of country health systems such as surveillance, diagnosis, case management and vector control2,3. Implementation of proven vector control interventions of long lasting insecticide treated nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) is currently at the core of successful malaria vector control4-6, responsible for reductions in malaria morbidity and mortality. Vector control remains one of the pillars for malaria elimination7.
LLINs protect their occupants by diverting host-seeking vectors to look for a blood meal elsewhere and by killing those that attempt to feed8,9. An estimated 552 million ITNs were distributed by NMPs globally, with most (459 million or 83%) being delivered in sub-Saharan Africa over the period 2015–2017. Globally, 85% of ITNs were distributed through free mass distribution campaigns, 8% in antenatal care facilities and 4% as part of immunization programmes1. in 2017, 50% of the population was protected by this intervention, an increase from 29% in 2010. Furthermore, the percentage of the population with access to an ITN increased from 33% in 2010 to 56% in 20171.
IRS provides some small amount of individual house protection by repelling and reducing the number of vectors that come into a house. However, the greatest impact takes place after feeding when the mosquito is more likely to rest on a sprayed surface and pick up a lethal dose of insecticide10. IRS coverage has declined rapidly, attributable to cessation of spraying with pyrethroids particularly in the WHO Africa Region1. The proportion of the population at risk protected by IRS declined from a peak of 5.7% globally in 2010 to 2.9% in 2016.
CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1. LITERATURE REVIEW .
1.1.1. Global Malaria trends
1.1.2. Mosquito Biolog
1.1.3. Malaria Vectors in Southern Africa
1.1.4. History of Malaria Control
1.1.5. Malaria vector control and integrated vector management
1.1.6. Insecticide resistance in malaria control
1.1.7. Larval Source Management in malaria vector control .
1.1.8. Larviciding for malaria vector control
1.1.9. Safety of bio-larvicides for malaria control
1.1.10. Effectiveness of larviciding on larval densities .
1.1.11. Effectiveness of larviciding on malaria vector densities .
1.1.12. Effect of larviciding on human malaria cases .
1.1.13. Acceptability of larviciding
1.1.14. Key considerations for larviciding
1.2. STUDY RATIONALE, JUSTIFICATION AND MOTIVATION
1.3. AIM, OBJECTIVES, HYPOTHESIS AND EXPECTED OUTCOMES
1.4. MATERIALS AND METHODS
1.5. References
CHAPTER TWO. Field effectiveness of microbial larvicides on mosquito larvae in malaria areas of Botswana and Zimbabwe
2.1. Abstract
2.2. Background
2.3. Methods .
2.4. Results ..
2.5. Discussion .
2.6. Conclusion
2.7. Declarations .
2.8. References
CHAPTER THREE Suppression of adult mosquito densities using microbial larvicides creates public health opportunities towards malaria elimination in semi-arid rural areas of Botswana and Zimbabwe .
3.1. Abstrac
3.2. Background
3.3. Methods
3.4. Results
3.5. Discussion .
3.6. Conclusion
3.7. Declarations
3.8. References
CHAPTER FOUR Community knowledge, perceptions and acceptability of microbial larviciding for malaria control in selected rural areas of Botswana and Zimbabwe.
4.1. Abstract
4.2. Background
4.3. Method
4.6. Conclusion
4.7. Declarations
4.8. References
CHAPTER FIVE Competencies of community volunteers in biological larviciding for malaria vector control in Botswana and Zimbabwe.
CHAPTER SIX General Discussion .
