HUMAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ADAPTATION TO EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS

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RESPONSES THAT CHANGE THE SOURCE OF THE STRESS OR THE SITUATION OUT OF WHICH THE STRESSFUL EXPERIENCE ARISES

According to Van Breda (2001), this strategy is not widely used. People must recognise the situation or factor that causes the stress before they are able to change it. However, this is not always possible or people might not know how to change the situation directly. Trying to change a situation might lead to more stressors that might inhibit further efforts.
Van Breda (2001) makes a note of the fact that most research done on resilience and coping revolved around situations such as concentration camps, terminal illness, growing up in poverty or being in a war where very little could be done to remove the source of stress.
This is one of the reasons why this study is so important. All the respondents used in this study participate in stressful, hazardous and even dangerous situations and conditions out of their own free will. They actually choose to be in these situations. The importance of this is that these people are all able to remove the source of stress – yet they do not. They are all motivated by some need or reason to expose themselves to these stressful and dangerous situations.
However, there seems to be disagreement with the statement by Van Breda (2001) that this style is not commonly used. In the literature various authors (Antonovsky, 1984, 1998; Kreitner & Kinicki, 1992; Gill, 2000; Cox, 2002; Potgieter, 2003; Weinberg and Gould, 2003) propose that stress is not only necessary for optimal functioning but developed problem-solving and stress management techniques, either individually or for teams, to control themselves and the situation or environment. Therefore, although there is some disagreement, the majority of researchers holds the view that certain personality predispositions and attitudes, cognitive techniques such as problem-solving and social skills such as networking or teamwork enable individuals to control the source of stress.

RESPONSES THAT CONTROL THE SYMPTOMS OF STRESS ITSELF AFTER THEY HAVE EMERGED

According to Van Breda (2001), this coping style does not focus on the situation itself, either directly or by changing the meaning or perception. The focus is rather on the resultant stress itself and entails basic stress management techniques.
These strategies attempt to decrease the negative effects of physiological and behavioural symptoms of stress such as palmer sweating, increased skin conductance, increased rapid respiration, increased heart-rate, higher blood pressure, tensed muscles, dryness of mouth, numbness and tingling of limbs, decreased metabolic rate, dilation of the eyes, frequent urination, nausea, vomiting or diarrhoea, pacing, trembling, restlessness, hand wringing, pressured speech, withdrawal, confusion, inability to concentrate, emotional outbursts or aggressive behaviour. As seen in chapter 3, stress is the internal psychological tension caused by internal and external stressors that change or are perceived to change the nature of the present and/or future situation to such an extent that it forces the individual to adapt by means of physiological and psychological responses. Therefore, this strategy focuses not on stress itself or the sources of stress but on the behavioural and physiological symptoms of arousal. Examples of these are hypnosis, self-hypnosis, progressive muscular relaxation, biofeedback, centering, autogenic training, meditation and imagery (Horn, 1992; Woods, 1998; Cox, 2002; Potgieter, 2003; Weinberg & Gould, 2003).
Whichever type of response is used, the fact remains that individuals use learned coping strategies, responses and techniques to consciously overcome adversity or challenges as well as the psychological pressure caused by either internal or external stressors. In other words, once an individual becomes aware of some psychological pressure or stress, usually manifested as physical or behavioural symptoms. They are sometimes able to determine the source of the stress or change their perception or focus on stress symptom management or use a combination of responses and techniques to overcome these stressors.
As seen in this section, each response would have different techniques that could be categorized under that response. Under responses that focus on the source of the stressor could fall the technique of visualization, if the source of the stress is uncertainty. However, it is possible that one technique could also be categorized under more than one response. The technique of visualisation could also be used under the response that changes the perception of the stressor. If, for example, the athlete has previously failed in a task or skill and has the perception that he/she is not able to execute the skill, visualisation can be used to change that perception. To summarize, active coping strategies are conscious, rational learned behavioural, emotional, cognitive or social responses used to minimize the effect of or the sources of stress and anxiety. Responses used to cope with stressors can be described as responses focusing on the source of the stress, responses changing the individual’s perception about the stress and/or situation or his/her ability to cope and responses that focus on the symptoms of the stress itself.
People usually use one or a combination of these responses to cope with the situation. Under each response several techniques such as problem solving, progressive muscular relaxation and visualisation are found, categorized under a response depending on the use of the technique. See figure 4.2 for a schematic representation of active coping strategies.

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CHAPTER 1  PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RESEARCH GOAL 
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTION
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1.5 CONCEPTUALISATION
1.6 CHAPTER OUTLINE
CHAPTER 2  THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES 
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 SALUTOGENIC THEORY
2.3 SALUTOGENIC THEORY AND ADAPTATION OF ENDURANCE ATHLETES TO THE CHALLENGES OF ENDURANCE SPORT
2.4 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 3  EXTREME CONDITIONS IN ENDURANCE SPORT 
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS
3.3 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4  HUMAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ADAPTATION TO EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS  
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 COPING STRATEGIES
4.3 COPING THEORIES
4.4 AVOIDANT AND ACTIVE COPING STRATEGIES
4.5 INTERACTION OF ACTIVE AND AVOIDANT COPING STRATEGIES.
4.6 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5  MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES 
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 MOTIVATION DEFINED
5.3 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
5.4 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF MOTIVATION
5.5 MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES
5.6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MOTIVATIONAL-AND COPING STRATEGIES
CHAPTER 6  METHODOLOGY 
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 RESEARCH APPROACH
6.3 DATA COLLECTION
6.4 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
6.5 SAMPLING
6.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
6.7 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 7  RESULTS 
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 DESCRIPTION OF RESPONDENTS
7.3 PERCEIVED IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON PERFORMANCE DURING ENDURANCE EVENTS
7.4 MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES USED DURING ENDURANCE EVENTS
7.5 COPING STRATEGIES USED DURING ENDURANCE EVENTS
7.6 ATTITUDE TOWARDS PROBLEMS
7.7 SELF-PERCEPTION OF ENDURANCE ATHLETES
7.8 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 8  DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE RESPONDENTS
8.3 PERCEIVED IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON PERFORMANCE DURING ENDURANCE EVENTS
8.4 MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES USED DURING ENDURANCE EVENTS
8.5 COPING STRATEGIES USED DURING ENDURANCE EVENTS
8.6 ATTITUDE TOWARDS PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES
8.7 SELF-PERCEPTION OF ENDURANCE ATHLETES
8.8 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 9  LIMITATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF RESULTS  
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY AND RECOMMENDED FUTURE RESEARCH
9.3 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS
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