INTEGRATION OF HUMAN NICHES AND ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE

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ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE THEORY

Change is generally implemented for positive reasons, but the low success rate of change programmes is often attributed to employee resistance (Di Virgilio and Ludema, 2009; Ford, Ford & D’Amelio, 2008; Martin, Jones & Callan, 2006).
Rosenberg and Mosca (2011) attribute resistance to the poor execution of change strategies, poor communication and a lack of employee involvement schemes. According to Werkman (2009), large, bureaucratic organisations with mechanistic structures can hinder change through too much managerial power and too many procedures and rules. Since communication in large, bureaucratic organisations is less personal and more formal, management’s ability to effectively communicate organisational change is essential to mitigate the personal reasons for resistance to change, such as fear of the unknown, lack of understanding, disruption of routine or perceived loss of security (Werkman, 2009).
According to Eby, Adams, Russell & Gaby (2000) building positive employee beliefs, perceptions and attitudes is critical for successful change. Hence employees’ subjective experiences of change must be addressed to understand what resistance to change actually entails (Oreg, 2006). Research by Jones, et al., (2008) identified three broad categories relating to subjective issues, namely emotional and attitudinal, change process and outcome issues.
Organisational change represents a specific context in which cynicism may arise (Smollan, et al., 2010). Perceptions of injustice, incompetence, laziness or lack of integrity on the part of from others (Wanous, Reichers & Austin, 2000) can lead to cynicism, which influences a person to view events negatively (Smollan, et al., 2010). Given workforces with a greater degree of demographic diversity,
technological change and increased international competition (House, 1995), coupled with the breath-taking changes foreseen in the business environment (Eisenbach, et al., 1999), leadership models are likely to become increasingly significant. Kotter (1995) underscores the importance of leadership to the change process, because by definition, change requires the creation of a new system and then institutionalisation of the new approach.
There has been little integration between change management and leadership in the literature (Eisenbach, et al., 1999) and much remains to be established about the role of leadership in the change process (Bateh, et al., 2013). Burnes (2004) sees the ability to manage change as a core competence of successful organisations.
According to Kotter (1996: 26), “successful transformation is 70 to 90 per cent leadership and only 10 to 30 per cent management”. The role that leaders play in the change process has been noted, but without conclusive research that focuses on the relationship between leadership and change (Almaraz, 1994; Bateh, et al., 2013).
Furthermore, the literature has not clearly demonstrated the impact of leadership on organisational change (Burke, 2002). A prime task of leaders is to effect change, and change in turn requires strong leadership (Kakabadse and Korac-Kakabadse, 1999; Hughes, Ginnett & Curphy, 2009). However, traditionally these two functions have been treated as separate matters (Strategic Direction, 2004; Kotter, 1995).
Change has become all pervasive, permeating every aspect of modern life (Bateh, et al., 2013; Eisenbach, et al., 1999). Modernism is characterised by change, and the future has become unstable, unpredictable and non-recurring, which can cause a sense of loss and/or anxiety for individuals, organisations and society. Taleb (2012:13) speaks of membership in the extended disorder family: uncertainty, variability, imperfect and incomplete knowledge, change, chaos, volatility, disorder, entropy, time, the unknown, randomness, turmoil, stressor, error, dispersion of outcomes and un-knowledge. In this modern day and age, such extended disorder has become the norm for society, organisations and individuals.
Taleb (2010:196) further explains the following experiment which can easily be related to organisational change:
“Operation 1 (the melting ice cube)”: Imagine an ice cube and think how it may melt over the next couple of hours while you do something else. Try to envision the shape of the puddle.
“Operation 2 (where did the water come from?)”: Consider a water puddle on the floor. Try to reconstruct in your mind’s eye the shape of the ice cube it once was.
Note that the puddle could have resulted from something other than an ice cube. The second option is more difficult. If you have the right models, you can predict with great precision how the ice cube will melt. However, from the pool of water, you could build infinite possible ice cubes; if there was an ice cube. The first direction is called the forward process. The second direction is called the backward process and is much more complicated. The forward process is used in physics and engineering; the backward process in non-repeatable, non-experimental historical approaches (Taleb, 2010). The above concept relates closely to inductive and deductive reasoning (Trochim, 2006) and is reminiscent of first and second order change as initially described by Graves (1974), which Beck and Cowan (1996) built on.

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CHAPTER 1: GENERAL ORIENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 BACKGROUND
1.3 CLARIFICATION OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS
1.4 RESEARCH PROBLEM
1.5 ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS STUDY
1.7 THE USE OF LITERATURE IN THIS STUDY
1.8 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
1.9 RESEARCH STRATEGY
1.10 ENSURING QUALITY DATA
1.11 UNIQUE CONTRIBUTION OF THIS RESEARCH
1.12 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
1.13 DELIMITATIONS
1.14 CHAPTER LAYOUT
CHAPTER 2: ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE THEORY
2.3 CURRENT CHANGE MODELS
2.4 CHANGE CATEGORIES
2.5 CRITICAL FORCES DRIVING CHANGE
2.6 IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
2.7 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
2.8 BEHAVIOUR RELATING TO ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
2.9 COMMUNICATION
2.10 THE ETHICS OF CHANGE
2.11 PERCEPTIONS ON CHANGE
2.12 LEADERSHIP
2.13 INTEGRATION
2.14 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 3: HUMAN NICHES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 INTRODUCTION TO SPIRAL DYNAMICS
3.3 SPIRAL DYNAMICS AND HUMAN NICHES
3.4 vMEMEs
3.6 INTEGRATION OF HUMAN NICHES AND ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
3.7 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 RESEARCH STRATEGY
4.3 SAMPLING DESIGN
4.4 PURPOSE OF VARIOUS DATA GATHERING METHODS.
4.5 DATA CODING AND ANALYSIS
4.6 ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS DURING DATA COLLECTION
4.7 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 5: THE CASE OF FLEET, TOTAL WORKING TIME AND
WORK STYLE INNOVATION
CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH FINDINGS
CHAPTER 7: RESEARCH ANALYSIS
CHAPTER 8: INTEGRATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
CHAPTER 9: STRESS AND THE BRAIN
CHAPTER 10: DISCUSSION OF THE NEED FOR ALTERNATIVE
APPROACHES
CHAPTER 11: SPIRITUAL AND OTHER INTERVENTION TECHNOLOGIES
FOR SUCCESSFUL ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
CHAPTER 12: PHYSICAL INTERVENTION TECHNOLOGIES FOR
SUCCESSFUL ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
CHAPTER 13: RESEARCH RESULTS