LOOKING INTO THE FUTURE: VO PLANS TO BUILD SOCIAL CAPITAL TO GROW THEIR BUSINESS

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Introduction

Development is a global challenge and the concept is used to label countries as “developed” or “developing”, thus highlighting inequalities in the state of development of different countries. Inequalities in human development also exist within the population of a country. Development theories have evolved from economically based “catch-up” theories of development to sustainable development as a multi-dimensional concept, with the economic dimension (profit) being augmented with ecological (planet), social (people), and institutional dimensions (WCED, 1987; UNDPCSD, 1995, 1996; Payne & Phillips, 2010; Griggs, Stafford-Smith & Gaffney, 2013).

Sustainable development

Unwin (2009:365) stated that sustainability is primarily a problem with “externally situated ICT4D programmes, and in part reflect a desire by those who create them to guarantee their continued success after the initial period of investment is over”. His opinion was that too little attention is paid to how initiatives can become self-supporting, and he recommended that all ICT4D programmes that are introduced by external players have a framework for ensuring “continued viability beyond the initial period of funding” to not saddle the participants with the burden (ibid.). Unwin pointed out that the long-term sustainability of socially-led initiatives is often based on a planned or unplanned transition from donor or state funding to acquiring private-sector support by promising routes to increased profitability. A pathway to sustainability is required that is dependent on many actors in the wider system. A case in point is USAID funding for telecentre establishment in Sri Lanka that is tied to co-investment by the local private sector (Hosman, 2011). To Unwin (2009:374), the bottom line is “such initiatives are not sustainable in the long-term, unless people can see real benefits from them for which they are willing to pay” and this depends on meeting people’s needs in an appropriate, cost-effective way.

A framework to engage with sustainability

The problem then becomes: What is an appropriate framework to enable continued viability that is
used to conceptualise, plan, execute and transition or transfer an ICT4D project that has the value
proposition of meeting people’s needs in an appropriate, cost-effective way so that people receive
real benefit for which they are willing to pay?

A project scope

The context of this research was an ICT4D project that follows an enterprise-led development strategy to provide broadband internet connectivity in rural areas in South Africa. The Broadband for All (BB4All) initiative that was driven by the CSIR Meraka Institute was based on an entrepreneurial model for the development of local Internet Service Providers (ISPs), recruited from local unemployed young people, which provide on-site technical support to connected facilities (main schools) as well as internet access and ICT-enabled services at their own offices (CSIR, 2014).

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.2.1 Sustainable development
1.2.2 A framework to engage with sustainability
1.2.3 A project scope
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1.5 DELINEATIONS AND LIMITATIONS
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE
1.7 CHAPTER OVERVIEWS
1.8 SUMMARY
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 Overview
2.1.2 The journey from development theory to social capital for sustainable ICT4D
2.2 WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?
2.2.1 Overview
2.2.2 Post-development theory
2.2.3 The selected development perspective
2.2.4 The human development approach
2.2.5 Human scale development
2.2.6 Sustainable Livelihoods
2.3 WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT?
2.3.1 Overview
2.3.2 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
2.3.3 Sustainable development approach.
2.3.4 Focus on entrepreneurs and small businesses for sustained growth
2.3.5 Role of social capital
2.3.7 Summary
2.4 WHAT IS ICT FOR DEVELOPMENT (ICT4D)?
2.4.1 Overview
2.4.2 Trends in ICT4D
2.5 ICT4D’S ROLE IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
2.5.1 Overview of discourses
2.5.2 Sustainability in ICT4D initiatives
2.5.3 A focus on entrepreneurs for sustained growth
2.5.4 Summary
2.6 FRAMEWORKS FOR ICT4D
2.6.1 Introduction
2.6.2 Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (DFID)
2.6.3 The Capability Approach
2.6.4 The Choice Framework
2.7 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING RESEARCH ON SOCIAL CAPITAL IN ICT4D
2.7.1 Introduction
2.7.2 Social capital in ICT4D research
2.8 SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW
2.8.1 Development theories and sustainable development
2.8.2 Role of social capital
2.8.3 ICT4D and sustainability
2.8.4 Frameworks for ICT4D
2.8.5 Overview of existing research on social capital in ICT4D
3 RESEARCH CONTEXT: THE “BROADBAND FOR ALL” PROJECT
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 THE BACKGROUND TO THE BB4ALL PROJECT
3.2.1 The problem: Rural schools lack connectivity
3.2.2 Commercial viability of broadband connectivity in rural South Africa
3.2.3 Broadband connectivity contributes to economic growth in rural areas
3.2.4 Government’s support for BB4All
3.3 PROJECT SCOPE AND DESIGN
3.3.1 Project scope
3.3.2 Project design.
3.3.3 Project structure
3.4 OVERVIEW OF THE IMPLEMENTATION (2009-2014)
3.4.1 A large-scale technology demonstrator
3.4.2 Deployment of the backbone and WMNs in Nkangala and Sekhukhune
3.5 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A VILLAGE OPERATOR (VO) MODEL
3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Mentoring and training
3.5.3 Village Operator Business Modelling
3.5.4 Branding.
3.5.5 Legal and Regulatory
3.6 BB4ALL END-OF-PROJECT FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
3.6.1 Introduction
3.6.2 General overview
3.6.3 Recommendations
3.7 EXIT STRATEGY (2014-2015)
3.7.1 Introduction
3.7.2 The challenges of taking over
3.7.3 Engagement between VOs, CSIR and e-Mbizo regarding project exit and commercialisa
3.7.4 Successes, challenges and lessons learnt
3.8 SUMMARY
4 METHODOLOGY AND DATA COLLECTION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES
4.2.1 Introduction
4.2.2 Forms of inquiry
4.3 RESEARCH PARADIGMS
4.3.1 The development of paradigms
4.3.2 Discussion of research paradigms in an ICT4D and IS context
4.3.3 Survey of the research paradigms used in ICT4D
4.3.4 Summary
4.4 THE PROJECT AND THE STUDY IN ICT4D AND IS RESEARCH CONTEXTS
4.4.1 The theory base of the study
4.4.2 The positioning of the BB4All project in ICT4D discourses
4.5 THE SELECTION OF THE RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY AND RESEARCH PARADIGM
4.5.1 Which paradigm is appropriate to this research in ICT4D?
4.5.2 The choice of research philosophy and methodology
4.5.3 Summary
4.6 RESEARCH STRATEGY
4.6.1 Case study
4.7 RESEARCH PROTOCOL
4.7.1 Introduction
4.7.2 Description of the research protocol
4.7.3 The selection of Net-Map
4.7.4 Ethical clearance
4.8 DATA COLLECTION
4.8.1 Types of interviews
4.8.2 The VO interview process
4.8.3 Project member interviews
4.8.4 Researcher and VO reflections on the interview process
4.9 SUMMARY
5 ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 THE CODING FRAMEWORK
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 The coding process: definitions
5.2.3 Outline of the coding process.
5.3 ANALYSIS OF THE CODING RESULTS
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Prevalence of codes
5.3.3 New coding constructs
5.4 DEVELOPMENT OUTCOMES: SOCIAL CAPITAL IN ACTION
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 An example of a VO summary
5.4.3 The themes that emerged
5.5 SUMMARY
6 SOCIAL CAPITAL
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 SOCIAL CAPITAL IN THE LIVES OF VOS
6.2.1 Micro-level social capital
6.2.2 Meso-level social capital
6.2.3 Macro-level social capital
6.2.4 Summary of the different levels of social capital
6.3 INFLUENCES ON THE SOCIAL CAPITAL OF THE VOS
6.3.1 Influence of geographical proximity
6.3.2 The role of ICT
6.3.3 Perceptions of foreigners – heterogeneous communities
6.4 LOOKING INTO THE FUTURE: VO PLANS TO BUILD SOCIAL CAPITAL TO GROW THEIR BUSINESS
6.4.1 Introduction
6.4.2 Examples of plans for relationships
6.5 REFLECTIONS ON SOCIAL CAPITAL IN THE PHASES OF THE PROJECT
6.5.1 Complexities at the launch of the project
6.5.2 Stabilisation and formalisation of operations
6.5.3 Communication throughout the project
6.5.4 The dynamics of social capital during the exit phase of the BB4All project
6.6 SUMMARY
7 COMMUNITY SERVICE AND SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP
7.2.1 Introduction
7.2.2 Defining social entrepreneurship – Definition 1
7.2.3 Defining social entrepreneurship – Definition 2
7.2.4 Mapping Definition 1 and 2 to each other
7.3 COMMUNITY SERVICE IN THEIR PERSONAL CAPACITY
7.3.1 Introduction
7.3.2 Soccer and community development
7.3.3 A belief in doing good
7.4 COMMUNITY SERVICE AS PART OF VO BUSINESS VALUES
7.4.1 A long-term vision for adding value to your community as an entrepreneur
7.4.2 A responsiveness to the customers’ lack of money
7.5 VOS LIVING OUT COMMUNITY SERVICE IN THEIR BUSINESSES
7.5.1 Free services in response to community needs
7.5.2 Consideration of customers’ constraints
7.5.3 Win-Win approaches
7.6 VOS MANAGING COMMUNITY EXPECTATIONS
7.6.1 Being from the community
7.6.2 A VO being seen as a representative of government
7.7 SUMMARY
8 NETWORKS OF INNOVATION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 INNOVATION IN THE USE OF ICTS IN DEVELOPMENT
8.2.1 Phases in the evolution of ICT4D
8.2.2 The living labs approach
8.3 DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
8.3.1 Research on diffusion of innovation.
8.3.2 The Diffusion of Innovations Model (DIM)
8.3.3 The influence of new technologies and new research on the DIM
8.3.4 Diffusion and development
8.4 DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION IN SERVICE ORGANISATIONS.
8.4.1 General overview
8.4.2 Innovation in Service Organisations
8.5 SERVICE INNOVATION FOR AND WITH CUSTOMERS
8.5.1 Innovating to meet different types of customers’ attitudes and needs
8.5.2 Using in-depth knowledge of customer needs to develop business ideas
8.5.3 Innovating to compete by using relationship networks
8.5.4 Innovation via the use of relationships
8.6 INNOVATIVE BUSINESS COLLABORATION
8.6.1 Close business collaborations
8.7 ENABLING VO BUSINESS OPERATIONS TO OVERCOME THE LACK OF RESOURCES
8.7.1 Types of support.
8.7.2 Making the most of limited resources
8.8 BUILDING NETWORKS OF RELATIONSHIPS FOR BUSINESS GROWTH
8.8.1 Schools as a long-term source of customers
8.8.2 A business focus
8.8.3 A community focus.
8.8.4 A VO network focus
8.9 SUMMARY 256
8.9.1 Introduction
8.9.2 Theories applied to the VOs role in innovation diffusion and creation
8.9.3 Findings regarding innovation created in VO and customer interactions
8.10 SUMMARY OF THE THREE THEME CHAPTERS
9 REFLECTIONS ON THE CHOICE FRAMEWORK
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO RESEARCH CONTEXTS
9.3 THE STORY OF A VO
9.3.1 Introduction
9.3.2 Outcome
9.3.3 Agency
9.3.4 Structure
9.3.5 Dimensions of choice
9.3.6 Conclusions
9.4 PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL: BELIEF
9.4.1 Introduction
9.4.2 Believing in oneself
9.4.3 VOs supported by churches
9.5 SUMMARY
10 CONSIDERATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT PRACTICE AND PROJECT DESIGN
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 THE CONCEPTUALISATION OF THE BB4ALL PROJECT
10.2.1 The problem
10.2.2 Sustainable development as the goal
10.2.3 The VO model in the context of sustainable development
10.2.4 Considerations
10.3 THE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE BB4ALL PROJECT
10.3.1 Introduction
10.3.2 Market development for achieving sustainability
10.3.3 Organisation development for achieving sustainability
10.4 THE TRANSFER OF THE BB4ALL PROJECT
10.5 SUMMARY
11 CONCLUSION
11.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS.
11.2 CONCLUSIONS
11.3 SOCIAL CAPITAL DESCRIPTION
11.3.1 Micro-level social capital
11.3.2 Meso-level social capital
11.3.3 Macro-level social capital
11.4 USAGE OF SOCIAL CAPITAL TO GROW VO BUSINESSES
11.4.1 Use of micro-level social capital
11.4.2 Use of meso-level social capital
11.4.3 Use of macro-level social capital
11.5 CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONCEPTUALISATION, DESIGN, IMPLEMENTATION AND TRANSFER OF ICT4D INITIATIV
11.5.1 Conceptualisation of ICT4D initiatives
11.5.2 Design and implementation of ICT4D initiatives
11.5.3 The transfer of ICT4D initiatives
11.6 IMPLICATIONS FOR EXISTING THEORY
11.7 SUMMARY OF CONTRIBUTIONS
11.8 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH