Minerals in drinking water and layer production

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Introduction

Water quality concerns have often been neglected because good quality water supplies were plentiful and readily available. This situation is changing in many areas. Sound planning is now required to ensure that water of the quality available is put to the best use.
The climate in South Africa varies from desert and semi-desert in the west, to sub-humid along the eastern coastal areas, with an average annual rainfall for the country of just over half of the average for the rest of the world. South Africa’s water resources are limited and, in global terms, are considered sparse. The natural availability of water across the country is distributed unevenly, with more than 60% of the river flow arising from only 20% of the land area. In addition, as the country is mainly underlain by hard rock formations, it is poorly endowed with groundwater in some areas and does not have many groundwater springs (Millard, 1999).
Minister Ronnie Kasrils, the South African Minister for Water Affairs, started his address to parliament in commemoration of water week (19 March 2001) by saying the following: “This week is National Water Week, when South Africans are called upon to re-evaluate their attitude to the single most important asset South Africa has – WATER.” (Pretoria News, March 2001) To make optimal use of this valuable asset it is important to understand the dynamics involved in the use and quality of water in agriculture. The validity of existing water quality guidelines in their application to South Africa’s unique circumstances require examination. Water quality refers to the characteristics of a water supply that will influence its suitability for a specific use. Each specific use has a different quality requirement and one water supply is considered more acceptable if it produces better results or causes fewer problems than an alternative water supply.
There have been a number of different water quality guidelines for livestock watering. Each has been useful but none has been entirely satisfactory because of the wide variability in findings and applications.

CHAPTER 1 A national survey of the quality of groundwater used by poultry producers in South Africa
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Borehole selection
Sample collection
Laboratory analysis
Statistical evaluation
Result of water analysis
The Western Cape
The North West Province
Gauteng
The Freestate
The Eastern Cape
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry sampling results (1996-2001)
Discussion
CHAPTER 2 Minerals in drinking water and layer production
Introduction
Sodium
Chloride
Sulphate
Magnesium
Materials and Methods
Statistical Analysis
Results and Discussion
Levels of Cl, Na, SO4 and Mg ions (mg/kg) present in the eggs
Chloride contents of the eggs
Sulphate contents of the eggs
Sodium contents of the eggs
Magnesium contents of the eggs
Calcium contents of the eggs
Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 The effect of elevated levels of NaNO3 in drinking water of layers and broilers
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Experiment 1: Layers
Statistical Analysis
Results
Histopathology
Hearts
Kidneys
Intestines and pancreas
Livers
Discussion
Conclusion
Experiment 2: Broilers
Materials and Methods
Statistical Analysis
Methods for the determination of the Vitamin A content of the chicken livers
Results
Histopathology Results
Hearts
Kidneys
Discussion
Conclusion
CHAPTER 4. Influence of Ca and P in the drinking water on egg production, egg quality, bone integrity and shell strength.
Introduction
Materials and methods
Results and discussion
Histopathology results
Conclusion
CHAPTER 5. Theoretical Modelling Approach
Introduction
Generic WQGIS
Introduction
Generic guidelines within incidence categories
Definitions used for the Generic Guidelines
Generic guidelines – Trigger values
Generic WQGIS – Software Environment
Specific WQGIS
Basis of the Specific Water Quality Application vel
An example of a typical WIRRD
Modifying system factors
Site-Specific factors addressed
WIRRD Constituents
User interface of the specific model
Set user format
Help files
Conclusion
APPENDIX 1 to Chapter 5
Animal
Feed intake
Water intake
Body weight
Mortalities
Body weight gain and feed conversion
Egg production
Gender Ratio
Beak trimming
Environmental detail
Environmental
Housing
Ventilation rate
Air velocity
Lighting
Stocking density
Feeder space
Drinking space/type
Relative Humidity
Temperature
Floor type
Nutrition detail
Feeding program
Watering program
Feed texture/Pellet size
Phase feeding
Additives
Vitamin and mineral premixes
Interrelationships
Protein
Energy
Appendix 2 to Chapter
Site specific factors
CHAPTER 6. Summary, Application and Recommendations
Case Study
Conclusion
REFERENCES

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