Parents’ HS and BS and Influence on Daughters

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

As noted previously, the research consisted of two studies with the first or main study being a survey of daughters and their parents and the second being a longitudinal follow-up of the daughter sample one year later. The analyses for the first study (or main study), because of its complexity, will be reported in three distinct parts in the next three chapters. The present chapter reports in detail the methodology adopted for the main study. It first outlines the objectives for the main study followed by a detailed description of the samples, procedure, and measures used in the study.

Objectives for the Main Study

The primary objectives of the main study was to investigate how parental sexist attitudes predicted daughters’ sexism, self-esteem, and career aspirations. Additional objectives were to investigate the variables that predicted sexist attitudes for both parents and daughters, and to investigate variables that might mediate associations between parent and daughter variables. These mediating variables could be certain parental motivational goals or aspirations for their daughters, as well as daughters’ own related social attitudes and values and daughters’ identification with their parents. Daughters’ own sexist attitudes were also viewed as likely to mediate the association between parent variables and daughters’ self-esteem and career aspirations.
In order to achieve these objectives two surveys were conducted, one of daughters and the second of their parents (both fathers and mothers). The parents’ survey focused on parents sexist attitudes which were measured using the ASI. The parents’ background and socio-demographic variables were also assessed by the survey as possible predictors of parental sexism, as were the two variables of RWA and SDO, which had been shown in prior research to be the primary predictors of prejudice in general and sexism in particular (Adorno et al., 1950; Altemeyer, 1996, 2004; Duckitt & Sibley, 2007, 2009, 2010; McFarland, 2010). Finally, the parent survey also included measures of two constructs that seemed very likely to be important in how parents might socialize their daughters to adopt sexist attitudes and influence their self-esteem and career aspirations. These were parents’ motivational goal (value) promotion and career aspirations for their daughters.
The daughters’ survey involved measures of their sexist attitudes (again using the ASI), their career aspirations, and their self-esteem. Because it was possible that parental sexism might predict only some self-esteem dimensions and not others, a multidimensional self-esteem measure was used. Daughter variables that might predict their sexism, self-esteem, or career aspirations such as their RWA and SDO, their values, and their identification with their mother and father were also included in the survey.

Methodology for the Main Study

 Recruitment Procedure

The participants were 157 female university students and their parents. Most of the students were recruited by advertising the research in introductory social psychology laboratory and tutorial sessions, and by announcements to other undergraduate psychology classes. Undergraduate and postgraduate students were also recruited through e-mail contact, and by written advertisements displayed on the Psychology Department website and notice board (see Appendix C).
Several procedures were used to distribute the questionnaires and for their completion, dependant on what was most convenient for the participants. The initial contact person for each participating family was typically the daughter with the exception of five cases where the parent volunteered first to participate. These five parents were either students or staff in the Psychology Department. All the parents, including these five, completed their surveys at home. Ninety-eight daughters completed their surveys in small group sessions of approximately 30-40 minutes after their introductory psychology laboratory classes. Fifty nine daughters completed their surveys at home and then handed them in at the Psychology Department. Of these, 21 daughters had the surveys sent to them by post or e-mail. There were 139 cases where all three members of the family (both parents and the daughter) returned the survey. There were 4 cases where only two members (daughter and mother) from a participating family returned their surveys. In 14 cases only the daughter returned the survey. There were therefore a total of 139 fathers, 149 mothers, and 157 daughters. All of these families were whole families. The couples who participated as mothers and fathers had been living together with their daughter for most of the period of life of their daughter. Couples who had been divorced or separated were not included in the sample.
Each of the participating daughters received a $25 grocery or petrol voucher as compensation for participating. Parents who participated were entered in a draw with three chances of winning a prize of one hundred dollars each (see Appendix C for the participant information sheets).

 The Parent Sample

Of the parents, 144 mothers and140 fathers returned the survey. The mothers had a mean age of 49.66 (SD= 4.62) and the fathers had a mean age of 52.70 (SD= 5.84). The education and income of the parents are shown in Tables 3.1 and 3.2. Most of the parents had tertiary qualifications. The modal category for fathers was the highest income category (more than $111,000) whereas the modal category for mothers was the lowest (None – $20,000).

The Daughter Sample

The 157 daughters who completed the questionnaires had a mean age of 19.87 (SD = 2.76). Of the daughters 44.3% were first born, 15.2% were second born, 12 % were second born and also the youngest in a family of two children, 3.8% were middle born, 17.1% were the youngest (with more than one older sibling) whereas 5.7% of the daughters were the only child. The modal number of children in each family was 3 (39.7%) closely followed by 2 (37.8%). 11.5% of families had 4 children, 5.6% of families had more than five children and 2.6% of families had only one child.
Table 3.3 shows the ethnic and religious composition of the sample. Most participants identified themselves as belonging to one of the seven ethnic categories provided in the survey. Some belonged to multi-ethnic families and therefore checked two categories. Participants who identified themselves as Catholic or Anglican were categorized broadly as Christian, which formed the modal category.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Aim, Overview, and Context
2. Overall Structure of the Research Programme
3. Outline of the Thesis
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
1. A General Review of the Literature
1.2 Harmful Effects of BS
1.3 Benevolence in BS
1.4 Harmful Effects of HS
1.5 Parents’ HS and BS and Influence on Daughters
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
1. Objectives for the Main Study
2. Methodology for the Main Study
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSES WITH PARENTS’ DATA
1. Parent Variables Predicting Parental Sexism, Parent’s Value Promotion and Career Aspirations for Daughters (Main Study – Part 1)
2. Literature Review
3. The Present Research
4. Results
5. Discussion
CHAPTER 5: ANALYSES WITH DAUGHTERS’ DATA
1. Predicting Daughters’ Sexism, Self-Esteem, and Career Aspirations (Main Study – Part 2)
2. Introduction and Objectives
3. Literature Review
4. The Present Analyses: Objectives and Hypotheses
5. Results
6. Discussion
CHAPTER 6: ANALYSES WITH BOTH PARENT AND DAUGHTERS’ DATA
1. Parent Variables Predicting Daughters’ Sexism, Self-Esteem, and Career Aspirations (Main Study- Part 3)
2. Introduction and Objectives
3. Literature Review
4. Section 1: Prediction of Daughters’ Sexism from Parent Variables
5. Introduction and Objectives
6. Results
7. Discussion
8. Section, 2: Predicting Daughters’ Self-Esteem from Parent Variables
9. Introduction and Objectives
10. Results
11. Discussion
12. Section 3: Predicting Daughters’ Career Aspirations from Parent Variables
13. Introduction and Objectives
14. Results
15. Discussion
16. Section 4: General Conclusions
CHAPTER 7: FOLLOW-UP STUDY
1. Follow-Up Study: Predicting Change in Daughter Outcome Variables One Year Later
2. Method
3. Results
4. Section 1: The Longitudinal Associations between Daughters’ Predictor and Outcome Variables
5. Section 2: The Associations between Parent and Daughter Variables
CHAPTER 8: GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
1. General Discussion
2. Limitations of the Research
3. Opportunities for Future Research
4. Concluding statement
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