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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of my study is to explore the extent to which learners manage career-related transitions through career and self-construction. In striving to address this comprehensively, it is imperative to understand what these career-related transitions are in contemporary society, and to identify what support strategies can potentially help learners manage them. This chapter thus starts by explaining what these key components of my research are by discussing literature in that regard. Secondly, the extent to which current support strategies offered to learners are successful in helping them manage career-related transitions, is discussed. Thirdly, the need for updated theoretical perspectives in the field of career psychology emerges in the literature review as it becomes apparent that more traditional approaches do not account for the new demands people face in the world of work. These theoretical perspectives are explained in detail. The theoretical framework of my study is developed in response to this part of the literature review. This framework is discussed after salient attributes of the updated theoretical perspectives are identified as important in terms of being able to inform my research findings.
CONTEMPORARY ARRANGEMENT OF WORK
Growing uncertainty regarding occupational opportunities and job security has arisen in the 21st century due to globalisation and ongoing advancements in information technologies (Usinger & Smith, 2010). Globalisation is seen to account for fewer job opportunities for adolescents and young adults in particular (Bynner, 2001; Gutman & Schoon, 2012). Employees in current workplaces are generally faced with more frequent transitions (Kallinikos, 2004) and inevitably work in organisations with decentralised management structures, where delayering is common practice (Sewell, 2005). Organisations today generally have fewer tiers in their hierarchical structures. Individuals inevitably have to deal with more risks and uncertainty in the current global economy that necessitates the development of new skills so that they are up to date with job requirements and new technologies (Savickas, 2006). Karasek (1979) identifies a low sense of control over one’s job coupled with high levels of psychological job demands, as the root causes of job-related stress many individuals experience when confronted with the aforementioned salient features of the contemporary world of work.
The skills, knowledge and abilities of employees who are currently employed no longer guarantee that individuals will have jobs for the duration of their lives (Savickas et al., 2009). It is therefore crucial for them to become lifelong, flexible learners who are equipped to use sophisticated technologies and ensure that they maintain employability or create their own employment opportunities in striving to address the afore-mentioned challenges. Brown, Bimrose, Barnes and Hughes (2012) maintain that individuals need to engage in formal learning or training in working environments every five to ten years with the intention of updating their skills or to acquire new skills. Individuals who do not have the propensity to become lifelong learners are inevitably vulnerable in the labour market, as they are less adaptable when transitions or unforeseen changes occur (Brown, Bimrose, Barnes, Kirpal, Gronning & Daehlen, 2010).
Duarte (2009, p. 259) argues that the term employment is out-dated in contemporary society. It is more appropriate to use the term employability. The author’s statement that a career belongs to the person and not to organisations, reflects the need for individuals to assume control over their career development (Usinger & Smith, 2010). Savickas (1993) also expresses this sentiment by arguing that they need to assume responsibility and be accountable for the management of their careers. A study by Brown et al. (2012) concluded that individuals who take responsibility to their learning and development and ultimately for their careers, inevitably make successful life transitions. Cochran (2007) also emphasises that it is crucial for individuals not to lose sight of who they are in this process and where they want to be in the future.
Guichard (2006) argues that contemporary personal and career developmental issues are summarised by the following three questions which individuals inevitably ask themselves:
- Learners ask: What academic path should I select in school?
- Adults with some sense of control over their careers ask: How do I develop myself further by making use of my diverse experiences?
Adults with uncertain job opportunities ask: How do I manage and deal with the many transitions I face?
The author summarises the afore-mentioned questions by advocating that all individuals inevitably ask themselves how they can manage their lives in the unique contexts in which they find themselves.
Complex career challenges, characteristic of the 21st century, necessitate that.
individuals extend their questioning beyond only asking what jobs they will choose and answer the following in striving to preserve their identities (Rafael, 2007):
- How will I keep my job?
- How can I balance the various roles I assume in my life as their relative reciprocal relationships are considered?
- Which life roles are important to me?
- To what extent are my various life roles in conflict with one another
Shifts in theoretical presuppositions in the field of career psychology are necessitated so that the career counselling practices they inform are more useful to individuals as they attempt to answer these questions. Oyserman, Bybee and Terry (2006) call for dynamic approaches to career counselling practices. Moreover, these practices should emphasise individual creativity when career possibilities are explored. Theories of career psychology have consequently evolved from positivist to postmodern approaches in becoming aligned with the changed and new ways of thinking about the world of work and the meaning of work in one’s life. Three theoretical perspectives will be discussed in section 2.4 to elaborate on this; namely theories of person-environment fit, lifespan career development theory, and career construction theory.
SCHOOL-BASED CAREER TRANSITION SUPPORT
Rafael (2007) maintains that individuals of all ages are required to manage career demands in response to an ever-changing world. Pietarinen et al. (2010), for instance, examined the nature of transitions faced by 15-year-old Finnish learners. Their conclusion is that transitions can lead to high levels of stress and anxiety. Del Corso and Briddick (2015) reiterated this by stating that adolescents are often anxious in response to experiencing the first major career transition: leaving home.
Pletarian et al. (2010) call for programmes to be put in place in schools to support learners in managing the transitions they face. Needs Assessment Surveys show that adolescents acknowledge and value support offered to them in their career- development journey (Lapan, Aoyagi & Kayson, 2007).
In related research, Lapan et al. (2003) found, in a longitudinal study with adolescents in rural schools, that learners who received career development support in high school were more successful in managing career transitions throughout life. The authors found that curricula strategies potentially support learners’ career development. In addition, the study shows that career support at school makes learners aware of the fact that educational endeavours are useful in helping them attain their career goals. It is of paramount importance to provide consistent and competent career development support to all learners (Lapan et al., 2007, p. 266).
Lapan et al. (2003) expressed concern when they examined the extent to which current career counselling practices meet the afore-mentioned criteria for success. They argue that these need to be evaluated, as they are not seen to provide the necessary support to learners in educational settings. Learners should have the opportunity to prepare for future jobs by acquiring employability skills at school (Cotton, 2008; Poole & Zahn, 1993). Employers name effective communication, problem solving and teamwork skills as the three most important employability skills when recruiting graduates (Archer & Davison, 2008). However, Cranmer (2006) has found that skills that are generally taught at school do not correspond with the demands of the labour market.
To summarise: career-related transitions can potentially be stressful for learners if they do not receive adequate support at school. Unfortunately, a lack of support in that regard appears to be the general trend in current educational settings.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
Traditional and updated theoretical perspectives are now discussed. Theories that are seen to be useful in terms of informing my research findings are augmented as far as possible, culminating in the theoretical framework for my study.
Theories of person-environment fit
Positivist theories of person-environment fit characterise the industrial era and reflect the bureaucratic and hierarchical structure of large organisations that dominated the last century (Savickas, 2003). Swanson and Fouad (1999) name two such theories that were prominent at that time. Holland’s (1997) model of vocational
