TEACHING THINKING SKILLS

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CHAPTER THREE REFLECTIVE PRACTICE IN TEACHER EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

As illustrated in the previous chapter, teachers’ reflectivity is one of the approaches needing attention in teacher education. This chapter presents a review of the literature on reflective practice and its elements, the scope and nature of reflective practice in teacher education, and the different modes of reflection frameworks and tools suggested by different scholars. The practices in training reflective practitioners, particularly in ELT education, are reviewed and the roles and responsibilities involved in the teacher training programmes are discussed in detail. This chapter helps to link what is suggested by the scholars and the actual experience in Ethiopian context.

PERSPECTIVES OF REFLECTION

The definitions reveal that the concept of reflection is extended from simply throwing back of ideas and memories, to cognitive actions such as thinking, contemplation, meditation and any other form of considerate thinking, in order to make sense of actions taken or what is happening to ensure contextually proper amendments (Taylor, 2000:3). This comprehensive concept allows for a broad variety of thinking as the origin of meaningful reflection.
Historically, in the early 20th century, educational philosopher, John Dewey, was one of the first scholars to bring reflective practice into the field of teacher education in the United States of America (USA) (Dewey, 1933). Chitpin (2006) referring to Dewey’s work, argues that learning from experience occurs when practitioners are able to reflect on experience. Many years of experience might mean the same or nothing, unless it shows improvement as a result of continuous reflection, constructive feedback and learning something new, as a result.
Following on from Dewey’s theories of reflective practice, Schön (1983) developed the most familiar and commonly-used approach to reflective practice (Debra & Lesley, 2007). He emphasised that reflection is a means through which practitioners bridge the theory-practice gap by using the potential of reflection to discover knowledge in and on action. Schön acknowledged that the working intelligence of professionals and their ability to make sense of personal and professional acts in a theoretical manner is the basis for reflection, even though they might underestimate their practical knowledge in giving theoretical justifications. Schön (1983:23) referred it as a tacit knowledge, or knowing-in-action. The concept self-inquiry during action is referred to as reflection-in-action and the reflection after the completion of an activity as reflection-on-action. Experienced professionals usually try to inquire during action in an unconscious way and refer to it as knowing-in-action to learn, understanding a case in its natural context. Reflection-on-action gives the practitioners more time to reflect, which is suggested as an important aspect of reflection done in a planned and organised manner with clear objectives (Schön, 1983).
Moon (2007:2) emphasises the importance of reflection–before the action. Other scholars also suggested the importance of the reflection phase before the action in a planned reflection. For example, Wong and Nicotera (2003:12-15) proposed collective planning before practice. It is understood that in the process of teaching and learning, it is common to work on the lesson planning, material preparation, designing aids and as well as anticipating some aspects about the pupils. Therefore, reflection before, during and after action is recommended to gather rich and helpful data for the teachers to make decisions, Accordingly, scholars suggested different aspects in conceptualising these three moments of reflection: Pro-spective reflection or reflection-before-action, Spective reflection or reflection-in-action and Retro-spective reflection or reflection-on-action
Reflection-in-action engages teachers in critical thinking on the spot, while they are doing the teaching in the classroom. McGregor (2011:18-19) claims that reflection-in-action is a more sophisticated act, which requires a quick and immediate decision. Experienced practitioners may sometimes assess, modify and implement new approaches and activities about what is being taught and the intended outcomes (Minott, 2006:21). Despite the fact that it demands experience and alternative way of doing things right away, reflection-in-action helps to figure out what has been done right or wrong, giving direction for further reflection and decision making.
Later on, reflective teaching became more practical in examining fundamental assumptions in teaching and learning practices, and it was found to be a useful tool to recognise the interaction between dispositions (being), practice (doing), and professional knowledge (knowing) (Minott, 2006:20). In understanding reflective teaching, the crucial concept of value is the act of reflection: think deeply, to wonder about or meditate about something that happened with the intention of gaining more insight into the outcome. Reflection, therefore, implies two related mental activities, namely thoughtful consideration and mirroring(Sybil & Nahida, 2012:33). Minott (2006:21) suggests that reflective teaching should use reflection as the main instrument for change. Thus, teachers should be encouraged to create distance between themselves and their practice to analyse, discuss, review, change and develop their practice, adopting a more analytical approach.
McGregor (2011:13) explains that reflection-on-action is a straightforward reflection that involves experience about what and how to improve for the subsequent time. Therefore, it should be planned in time for recording and organising data for further interpretation and understanding of the outcomes. However, practitioners often ignore it as it demands additional time after the routine of classroom teaching. In this regard, the current study recommends guidelines as suggested by different scholars and a framework that would guide the reflection-on-action as part of the teaching and learning.
According to Jacobs, Vakalisa and Gawe (2011: 60) reflective teaching in teacher education is a means whereby teacher educators and trainee teachers critically examine their own actions, attitudes and the reality. They reflect on and discuss how they can improve these actions and attitudes to fit with the reality in which they are working. Reflection could be done as team work or on an individual basis, but support for one another is very important. In this regard, Jing and Suzhen (2011:155) suggest that collaboration or learning from one another is an important strategy and increases the probability that the teacher will be reflective and more confident in his/her practice of teaching and learning.
However, there are those who believe that reflective teaching is nothing new. They argue that reflective teaching is something which effective teachers have always done. In other words, they assert that good teachers automatically learn from their mistakes and continuously improve themselves (Loughran, 2005:21). Yet, this is a false argument (Bailey 1997:8). Reflective teaching is much more radical than learning from one’s own mistakes or solving specific problems. Reflective teaching examines the practitioner’s action even when the practitioner is quite satisfied with his/her own performance. According to Lawrence-Wilkes (2014:67) reflective practice is a set of creative activities to develop new ideas and approaches, and a process in which the practitioners, usually with the help of colleagues or a mentor take an intense look at his/her own teaching, identify specific new or hidden weaknesses in the teaching, think up improved behaviour, attitudes or beliefs, put new ideas into practice and identify best experiences to share with other colleagues (Bailey 1997:9).
Reflective practice involves action supported by evidence. Therefore, it needs a continuous practice of methodical self-assessment by a teacher about his/her own teaching, engaging in open discussion with colleagues or through written analysis and research. Thus, it goes far beyond what good teachers have always done. Loughran (2005:16) claims that if trainee teachers are to understand the value of the reflective practice as a worthwhile attribute for their professional development, they need to experience it as a logical consequence of learning to teach and as a tool to unpack and learn from the uncertainties of practical experience, rather than as a generalised and close-ended process.

Ghaye (2011:40-41) defined ten principles of critical reflective practice. Reflective practice needs to be understood as a discourse. This means that a reflective conversation should hold meaning, stories or statements which could possibly disturb the practitioner or challenge his/her professional identity. Reflective practice is fuelled and energised by the practitioner’s experience. With experience, the reflective practitioner learns that an experience, surprise or discomfort in everyday working environment triggers a reflection (Loghran, 2005:28). Often the focus of the educators is to reflect on problematic areas and give comments or constructive criticism. Ghaye (2011:45) suggests that reflection should also focus on successes; identifying the source of successful practice helps to augment and share these. Reflection is a process of critically examining experience, which in turn, leads to better understanding of how and why something went on (Richards & Lockhart, 1994). Then, practitioners would be able to explain their experience and share it with others. In the process of preparing reflective practitioners, William (1994, as cited in Sze, 1999:135) suggests that theories should highlight the trainee teachers’ experience but then in turn, be able to theorise from their experiences. Reflective practice is a process that takes place in a reflective circle. Ghaye (2011:44) explains that a reflective process means returning to look again at all tasks taken for granted, values, professional understanding, day-to-day practice and routines.
Reflective practice also involves accounting for oneself. It entails learning how to describe, explain and justify one’s teaching. If one is unable to question, define and discuss his/her practice, it is impossible to develop professional collaboration. Reflective practice is a disposition to inquiry. Reflective practice is not only a collection of approaches for eliciting confirmation about practice, nor it it only a toolbox that constitutes things such as incident assessment, performance analysis, guidelines on recording evidences, experiences, journals, and portfolios. Reflective practice is about setting clear rationale for reflecting and striving to learn and is a commitment to developing professionalism. In being committed to developing professionalism, practitioners should be engaged in the whole process of reflection Interest-serving means not simply reflecting on what we do, but we do so with certain purposes or interests taking into account the needs to be served (Ghaye, 2011:55). Loughran (2005:33) argues that practitioners learn by noticing, framing and reflecting on problems that interest them in a particular way.
Reflective practice is enacted by critical thinkers (Ghaye, 2011:56), who acquire a reflective language of argument, develop the skill of transforming experience and improve the teaching and learning context. Smith (2011) states that a critical thinker is the one who takes risk to try out something new and learn from the mistakes. According to Ghaye (2011:57), the everyday world of teaching and learning context is considered a symbolic landscape. Decoding symbolic landscapes means understanding the school environment, the classroom context, the teacher student interaction and the overall ways of doing as school culture. Reflective professionals are those who update and create the school culture. Linking theory and practice is what reflective educators do to develop their teaching practice and professionalism. For beginner practitioners, it creates a bridge between the theory they gain at university and the actual teaching practices in the school (Luttenberg & Bergen, 2008:564). Finally, reflective practice is a postmodernist way of learning which is referred to as social constructivism. Ghaye (2011:59) explains that post-modernist ways of knowing helps practitioners construct understanding of their actions and gives them the ability to interpret human actions.

REFLECTIVE TEACHING SKILLS

As teacher reflection is considered an important factor in teacher education and professional development, Akbari, Behzapoor and Dadvand (2010:213) established components or tools for various aspects of reflection which Ashraf, Samir and Yazdi (2016:8) reviewed. Practical reflective activities include journal writing, lesson recording, surveys and questionnaires, audio and video documents, observations, action research, portfolios, similar group discussion and analysing decisive incidents in a team or individual basis. Cognitive reflection activities comprise conducting action research, attending conference and workshops, reading in the literature in related fields, and making presentation are suggested. The meta-cognitive component of reflection is about reflection on teachers’ attitude and behaviour, their action, perception and emotional self. The affective reflection component is about the teachers’ reflection on their students, and understanding how the students learn and emotionally behave in the classroom. Teachers engage in critical reflection on the political significance of what they are teaching to their students, their action and related to ethnicity, gender and other social issues. Finally, moral reflection is reflection and assessment of teachers’ own moral issues (Akbari et al., 2010:216).
With the component of practical reflection, group discussions and working as a team is highlighted and termed collaboration. In the context of reflective teaching, collaboration might mean co-teaching, coaching or team teaching. There are also common misunderstandings about collaboration (Friend & Cook, 2013:315), as some believe it is about talking and sharing information. Others think it means co-teaching. On the other hand, people believe that it is different from co-teaching and is something which can be done outside the classroom. For others, it is part of their professional development programme. It is also the way of working with other partners for school improvement.
For trainee teachers who are engaged in reflective teaching practice (Friend & Cook, 2013:321) collaboration is one of the skills needed in order to engage in the practice of reflective teaching. Trainee teachers are required to collaborate with coaching teachers, mentors, supervisors, peers, colleagues and school community. Killion (2011, as cited in Friend & Cook, 2013:322) stresses that in the new professional standards, where reflectivity is needed, the evaluation system needs to involve working teams.
An effective and smooth flow of collaboration may happen if the people involved consider components such as commitment, communication skill, active interaction, programmes or services in a context (Friend & Cook, 2013:324). These components could also happen in a well-organised, planned and rich environment. It is not only just a matter of willingness to work together; the individuals need to have more technical skills and knowledge which can be learned and practiced, in order to perform a task together. The context, in which the individuals in a collaborative team are working, as well as the necessary planning and logistics are important, because collaboration is a process and the final result will not occur if an aspect is missing. Therefore, teacher trainees need to understand and practice in order to become competent in these professional skills.
Yet, despite all its benefits and popularity, collaboration sometimes can be difficult to foster. Liu (2009:34), in an ELT education conference, reported that there are so many factors that make collaboration difficult especially for non-native English language teachers. Some include time and energy constraints, securing territory, feelings of inadequacy or superiority, general inexperience, difference in background and cognitive style, unwillingness, misunderstanding one another, lack of tolerance, respect and lack of communication competence. In most cases, one of the barriers is language competency in the Ethiopian context. It is always a contradicting reality that English is a medium of communication in academic context, but it is also less accessed and a barrier to effective communication.
Hopkins (2008:25) affirms that teachers are in a position to create good quality teaching in the the 21st century schooling system; hence cognitive reflection includes activities such as conducting action research. Hopkins (2008:27) uses the term classroom research-in-action in referring to action research, and in this study, the researcher prefers to use the term classroom research. Hopkins (2008:37) asks a very important question: Why classroom research by teachers? In short, it is because good teacher are not those who are always told to do what others have found out; they are autonomous and empowered to make professional judgements about bringing change in their classrooms, in the school as well as in the society. In general, they take responsibility for being up to date on the latest methods and approaches and as such, bring quality to their own teaching. Teachers thus use classroom research to look critically into their own classrooms and use the results to improve the quality of education in their schools.
Inexperienced teachers may think that teaching is simple procedure of presenting subject knowledge and finally testing students. However, Stringer, Christensen and Baldwin (2010:56) make clear that experienced teachers know they should participate in explorations and problem-solving research and thus be reflective. Sze (1999:133) identified five orientations of reflective teaching and one of these is reflective teaching as a classroom inquiry. Reflective teachers are action researchers who always strive to update themselves (Richard & Farrell, 2005:78; Richard
& Lockhard, 1994:34). Therefore, classroom research is one of the tools that enable teachers to explore and find solutions for all kinds of the classroom aspects that demand attention. In modern education, where reflection and research-based improvement is demanded, classroom
research is part of the teachers’ routine. They can conduct it in collaboration with colleagues and their students, when seeking a solution with problems in teaching and learning or any activity or when they want to try out an innovation in their school.
Classroom research is a simple process but demands well-planned procedures. It is part of the higher education curriculum, particularly in teacher education institutes which promote reflective practice, where action research is one of the activities reflective teachers are expected to perform, and it is part of the requirements for pre-service teachers. According to Stringer, Christensen and Baldwin (2010:57) classroom research is a conscious inquiry done by reflective teachers to answer the questions: Who are the students? What will they be like? What will they need to learn? and How will I plan and organize the learning? In a broader sense, classroom research is a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in education, in order to understand and improve educational practice and the situations in which the practice is conducted (Hopkins, 2008:48). Classroom research or action research is an inquiry that helps teachers and students collect data, analyse it and come to a conclusion about problems or challenges in their teaching and learning.
Writers have suggested several tools and procedures to facilitate reflection. The reflective practitioners should choose and use the tool that best fits a particular context. As suggested by Newby, Allan, Fenner, Jones, Komorowska and Soghikyan (2007: 6), practitioners need to learn to choose among the tools that help them reflect on and assess the results of general teaching and learning, the content (the curriculum, the objectives, the roles of the teachers and the students, the educational and social contexts), the methodology and the resources.
In preparing prospective teachers for reflective teaching, different models, frameworks, and propositions were made to assist in the design of teacher education programmes (Sanal, 2006:22). In the literature on second language teacher education programmes, there are several examples of approaches and strategies that can be used to assist and increase reflection such as journals, narratives, teacher diaries and notes, biographies, teaching portfolios, practical experience, reflective dialogue, audio and video recordings of lessons, self-observation and observation of other teaching (Richards & Farrell, 2005:79; Killion, 2011:12).

LEVELS AND MODELS OF REFLECTION

Reflective practice is all about meta-cognition or thinking about your thoughts. Various models to facilitate reflective practice have been developed. Lawrence-Wilkes (2014:78) developed the REFLECT model as a mnemonic device.
In a similar manner, Carroll (2010:27-31) presented six levels of reflection that deepen the reflection practice and create an environment conducive for learning from the process. Carroll argues that these patterns also demonstrate how experiential learning happens through reflection. Carroll’s six levels of reflection are described under different titles, ability of reflection, stances or attitude of the reflector and the quality of connection. Thus, level one is zero or non-reflective stance. At this level the reflector finds it difficult to look at wider picture in the system and look inwards. Level two is an empathetic reflection where the reflector becomes more of an observer with acknowledgement of feelings. Level three is a relational reflection stage. The reflector uses dialogues within inside self and with others and share issues with a rational perspective. Level four is a systematic reflection stance where the reflector looks at things systematically from various perspectives. The reflector also considers the context in which an issue is dealt. Level five is a self-reflection position where the reflector starts to consider how to set things up in a particular context and internalise the problem. Level six is a transcendent reflection stage which allows universal connection. The reflector at this level starts to analyse what actually gives meaning to his/her life, personal or professional.
Amera (2016:40) explained that the level of reflection can be generalised into three proportions:
Depth of reflection refers to the magnitude in which the reflection is matured and emerged from the reflector’s experiences and his/her reasoning power instead of receiving from some source as it is. Content usually refers the topic of reflection: Self-related or outside self. Forms of reflection are related with the time of reflection in line with the actions.
Amera (2016:42) also explained the levels of reflection from three different perspectives: low, middle and high. The lower level of reflection is a descriptive and simply technical level reflection. It demands the skill of recalling and reporting what has happened. Middle level reflection demands the skill of comparing and analysing relations among varied experiences. This level of reflection is a relatively advanced level of reflection which involves analysis, logical reasoning, exploration and decision-making in order to make changes in what and how the practitioner performs (Luttenberg & Bergen, 2008:544). Critical reflection is the highest level of reflective practice. This level of reflection involves critical reasoning, exploring, making criticism with higher sense experience (Hell, 2011:829; Amera, 2016:44).
Whether the reflection is deep broad or casual, ultimately there should be an objective to be reflected on. Teachers should know why they should practice reflection and be taught how to reflect. But there needs to be clear guidelines to help make the reflection part of teachers’ day-to- day teaching and learning practice. However, the guidelines need to have content. Different approaches emphasise different aspects but there is no clarity among the areas emphasised at different times by different scholars. If there is no guide indicating the areas needing to be emphasised, the reflection will only become a focus on the technical formalities (Cautreel, 2002:66). A true reflective practice that focuses on the teachers’ professional development needs to concentrate on these four dimensions: technical, moral, political and emotional dimensions.
The technical dimension is the most emphasised aspect by the educators, the institutes and the practitioners. This is related to the question of how the practitioners do things. It is mainly about the practical and observable events. Hargreaves (1995:59) defines reflection on the moral dimension relating it to what norms and values are important for why the teachers are doing what they are doing in their teaching. Reflection on the emotional dimension is a very important aspect as emotions are not side products but essential parts of a teacher’s professional development. Reflection on the emotional dimension is related to questions about affections, feelings, doubts, powerfulness or powerlessness. However, as stated by Hargreaves (1995:61), the teacher’s emotional self is usually neglected in the process of educational reforms or development aspects by both the educators and the institutions. To this end, Moon (2007:45) argues that in a meaningful deeper reflection, it is important to understand how emotion can affect the process and the capability of the teacher to monitor its effects. The political dimension is a question of relevance, survival and identity. This has links with power relations, obeying of rules, polices, political interests and principles. Teachers’ political understanding can positively or negatively trigger their emotions. As a result teachers’ performance in schools as well as in society will highly be influenced.
When the given dimensions and the contents, which could be addressed, are closely studied, the issues of reflection for teachers’ professional development will be inclusively or exclusively addressed. Korthagen and Verkuyl’s (2002:44) model of reflection identifies six components of reflection which could be performed at different levels. These areas are: environment, teacher’s behaviour, competencies, beliefs, identity and mission. Likewise, the table below, adapted from (Sze, 1999), offers five aspects of reflection related to different social academic and political dimensions. From the researcher’s points of view, the table also reveals the contents and emphasis of reflection during different traditions. The areas addressed here are not again mutually exclusive; there is always some overlapping. Thus, there will be some aspects emphasised for some reasons and there will be others neglected or forgotten. Therefore, the teacher education programmes, set in a particular context, are not suggested to be the perfect model of any of the traditions. However, the content of reflection should be carefully designed with justifications in a meaningful and practical manner.

CONTENTS
DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
DEDICATION
ABSTRACT
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER ONE  ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1.8 TRUSTWORTHINESS
1.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
1.10 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1.11 KEY CONCEPTS
1.12 CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.13 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER TWO  THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 CONCEPTUALISATION OF REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
2.3 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE REFLECTIVE PRACTICE THEORY
2.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.5 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
2.6 TEACHING THINKING SKILLS
2.7 TEACHER EDUCATION MODELS
2.8 THE THEORY PRACTICE INTERACTION
2.9 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER THREE  REFLECTIVE PRACTICE IN TEACHER EDUCATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 PERSPECTIVES OF REFLECTION
3.3 PRINCIPLES OF CRITICAL REFLECTION
3.4. REFLECTIVE TEACHING SKILLS
3.5 LEVELS AND MODELS OF REFLECTION
3.6 OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES IN PRACTISING REFLECTION
3.7 LIMITATIONS OF REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
3.8 REFLECTIVE PRACTICE IN TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES
3.9 THE SCOPE OF REFLECTIVE PRACTICE IN THE PGDT PROGRAMME
3.10 CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME IN ETHIOPIA
3.11 REFLECTION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION
3.12 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN DEVELOPING A REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
3.13 REFLECTIVE PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS’ CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD)
3.14 SUMMARY
CHAPTER FOUR RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
4.3 RESEARCH APPROACHES
4.4 THE RESEARCH DESIGN
4.5 THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY
4.6 RESEARCH METHODS: DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENTS
4.7 THE PROCESS OF DATA COLLECTION
4.8 METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS
4.9 TRUSTWORTHINESS
4.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
4.11 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER FIVE DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA
5.3 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS: INTERVIEWS
5.4 QUALITATIVE DATA: DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
5.5 QUALITATIVE DATA: OBSERVATIONS
5.6 CONCLUSION OF THE CHAPTER
CHAPTER SIX DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS
6.3 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
6.4 SUMMARY
6.5 RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
6.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
6.8 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER SEVEN  A PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR EDUCATING REFLECTIVE ELT TRAINEE TEACHERS IN THE PGDT PROGRAMME
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 THEORIES UNDERPINNING THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
7.3 EDUCATION POLICIES UNDERPINNING THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
7.4 TEACHER EDUCATION PRACTICES UNDERPINNING THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
7.5 STAKEHOLDERS AND INSTITUTIONS UNDERPINNING THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
7.6 A FINAL WORD
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