The benefits of skill training in TVET program

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CHAPTER THREE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK IN THE RESEARCH

Introduction

Studies suggest some scientific explanations on how, when and where people can learn and gain knowledge. In this regard, psychologists have conveyed their major thoughts pertaining to the scientific explanations through the main learning theories which are broadly classified as behaviorism (which emphasizes on behavior depending on the environment) and cognitivism (that values the mental aspect of the human being) theories. As a result, psychologists have attached themselves to specific and more focused theories of learning. Some of these theories focus on conditioning /classical or operant/, some on cognitive, some on observational learning and others on the approach that views learning as the reorganization and reconstruction of experience. Hence, the major debate associated with the learning theory is to identify which methodology(s) can best describe this more specific area of learning (Bergh & Theron, 2006).
In order to undertake this research, the researcher considered learning theories that emphasize on the role of environmental influences. Within this framework, a child can learn by both deliberate and unintended learning experiences at home, from his/her peer group at school, at playing grounds, in the community, at the work places, etc. The child’s learning is significantly shaped by the efforts of parents, teachers, friends, community leaders and others to socialize him/her in desirable ways. In everyday life, learning involves the child doing things with more experienced people-adults or older children-and carryout the activity. However, at the beginning, the child does nothing but participates through observation and listening (Coy, 1989).
Learning theories focusing on non-formal situations that emphasize on environmental influences can be helpful in the research of apprenticeship training. This is due to the fact that apprenticeship training takes place outside the classroom. More specifically, it takes place at the workplaces. In a workplace situation, the worker (master) is the ideal person who can share his/her occupational experiences to the other people. In doing so, apprenticeship can be designed to facilitate the transfer of skill, knowledge and attitude. Its eventual result may enable people to identify specific career (Rusch & Chadsey, 1998).
Apprenticeship can be explained in terms of the environment in which it takes place. In relation to this, some of the learning theories that have implication for apprenticeship training are identified and discussed in this chapter.

Vygotsky’s theory of the Zone of Proximal Development/ZPD/

Unlike Piaget, who asserts on the universal nature of human cognitive development, Vygotsky focuses on people’s culture for the development of the mind. His conception of the cognitive development of people has been discussed in detail in the social development theory of learning. Vygotsky argues that people’s cognitive development is the product of their continuous social interaction. Unless a person lives and interacts with the society, it will be hard for him/her to develop his cognitive ability. In doing so, people apply language as a tool to enhance their cognitive process. It is with language that people express their feelings, thoughts, experiences, etc. to others. However, the pattern of social interactions and expectations may differ from culture to culture (Bernstein, Penner, Clarke-Stewart & Roy, 2006).
Vygotsky’s social development theory of learning further explains the presence of the connection between the cognitive development and guidance by others using the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).’ This is the term used by Vygotsky to clarify variation of task accomplishment between a learner and a skilled person. The common conception of ZPD indicates the difference between what a learner can accomplish independently and what he/she can do with the assistance of skilled person on a given task. The nature of the task can be either skill or knowledge on any topic. Vygotsky claims that the gap, which is labeled as ‘Zone’, is crucial since it requires experienced people to intervene in order to enhance the cognitive development of a beginner by uplifting him to the level of the assistant. The gap can be filled by applying a teaching/training strategy known as ‘scaffolding’. The scaffolding process enables teachers/ trainers to access ZPD (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010).
The process of scaffolding can take place in any social situation no matter whether it is formal or non-formal. For instance, children learn culturally approved social norms, values, skills, etc. by the application of scaffolding from their parents. Similar learning opportunities can be arranged in various situations by people with rich experiences. This kind of support will be accomplished through ‘guided participation’ with the person who shows the necessary direction. Guided participation indicates the active participation along the skillful person in a socially approved way. Due to this, the way scaffolding is carried out in the society may vary and even from person to person (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). However, Vygotsky’s theory can be criticized due to its failure to recognize individuals’ role for their own cognitive development.
Guided participation can be applied to describe the apprenticeship training process at the workplaces. As is known, workplaces are not formal learning places. However, we see people with rich work experiences guiding/teaching the novice workers. The desired results can be achieved by the application of, as Shaffer and Kipp (2010) explained it, scaffolding and through guided participation. Apprentices are, thus, expected to learn about a job from workers with rich experiences in the industries. They can do this by imitating model workers at the workplaces.
In the actual work situation, we see workers performing tasks under various job titles. As far as there is division of labor, we expect diversification of jobs to sustain. The skill, knowledge and attitude regarding a given job will continue to pass to the next generation. This can be realized through social interactions. Training or education is a means that actualize this process. The reality is not different at workplaces. The trainee and trainers enter into the social intercourses through which knowledge transmission takes place.

Bandura’s Theory of imitation

Apprenticeship program is a means of facilitating training process. This kind of training process can, in fact, be explained using Bandura’s (1977) theory of imitation or observation. The theory gives value to both the environment and the mental aspect of the human being. As a result, it has often been called a bridge between behaviorists and cognitive learning theories (Bergh & Theron, 2006). However, observation at times could result in the development of unnecessary behavior when exposed to a learning situation that may cause to develop antisocial behavior.
The theory consists of three basic components; namely, attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Accordingly, the theory asserts that people learn much about behavior by observing others. In order to learn they should pay attention to the behavior they want to imitate. Attention may not be enough. It should be accompanied with retention in order that the observed behavior can be used in the future. The retained behavior should also be reproduced or applied to the situation that requires it. The last task can be accomplished when the person is motivated (Grieve & Mojapelo-Batka, 2005).
The application of Bandura’s theory of observation can be seen at workplaces when a beginner imitates a skillful worker in a given profession. Thus, a beginning carpenter should first see how others work before he starts operating. The master, as the same time, may not be expected to apply the modern didactic principles of teaching the skills. However; the beginner can learn simply by observing him/her while doing (Coy, 1989).
The nature of learning, in the apprenticeship training process, requires the trainee to observe the skills of the master, supervisor or craftsman/craftswoman. During this process, the apprentice does not passively grasp all what he observes or listens. Instead, s/he asks questions critically: what relevance does it have to my occupation? What similarities and differences does it have with what I learned in the class? Is what I learned applicable? With what conditions and how can it be applied? How can I test it? To this end, s/he may apply her/his theoretical knowledge s/he gained in the class. Eventually, s/he masters the kills of the occupation s/he chose.
The above argument goes with the views of constructivists on learning. The constructivist view of learning is believed to stem from the assumption that knowledge can be constructed by the learner while trying to make sense of the environment s/he lives. The proponents of this view argue that knowledge is inseparable from doing. The learner is not a recipient of knowledge from the teacher but s/he can also construct knowledge. According to the constructivist view of learning, the learner’s active role is decisive in acquiring knowledge. Due to this reason the learner is expected to be engaged actively in meaningful learning activity. Consequently, s/he is required to apply the ‘sense of authenticity’. This means that s/he should apply the skill and knowledge s/he gained to the context outside the classroom (McCown, Driscoll, Roop, Roop & McCown, 1999).

Contextual, situated or connected learning

We can also consider the contextual learning, situated learning, or connected learning to explain apprenticeship training (as cited in Rusch & Chadsey, 1998). In this kind of learning, students are engaged to solve real problems that require them to apply the skill and knowledge they have acquired from their schools in their field of research. The originators of the theory, Lave and Wenger (1991), argue that engaging in practice is the basic condition for the effectiveness of learning. This contrasts with most classroom learning activities which involve abstract knowledge and out of context (Lave & Wenger, 1991). In relation to this, the apprenticeship training situation requires the trainee/apprentice to learn from workplaces where the actual occupational skill practices take place. They learn it more by doing or practicing at the real work situation. The effort enables them to see the application of the theoretical learning.
Likewise, workplaces can be considered as the ideal natural context of learning (Rusch & Chadsey, 1998). Learning that takes place at the workplace gives value to the context that the learning takes place. We can thus explain apprenticeship training as a process of learning that takes place in the workplaces where the actual work performance is demonstrated. It benefits apprentices by improving their self-esteem, understanding workplace culture, creating a network for future job and exposing them to career choice.
The transition from training institutions to workplaces creates new opportunities to trainees. This can be described as change in the social environment. Before transition, trainees’ social contact was limited to teachers, classmates and friends in the school. However, this social environment changes when they go to workplaces. This is a step towards adulthood life. The other opportunity is that the transition enables trainees to gain the desired skill of a job while it is being applied in its real setting (Ghee, 2005).
Skills such as dealing with clients and teamwork are typically better learned on the job. While a school setting provides an opportunity for trainees to develop further but is difficult to simulate situations that develop such skills. A better learning environment requires up-to-date equipment for practical training. This is hard to ensure in schools because some equipment is too costly and need to be regularly renewed to keep up with rapid technological changes. Besides, workplace training facilitates conditions by permitting trainees and employers to learn about each other. Apprentices can learn about the kind of work they may want to pursue by imitating from the employers in the enterprises (Kis, Hoeckel, & Santiago, 2009).
However, the current investigation could not undertake due consideration to the kind of knowledge apprentices gain during their participation in the workplaces. In this regard, most of the literature on apprenticeship focuses on skill acquisition out of the school context. Along with this, in its modern approach, apprenticeship concentrates on the skill training in the workplaces, in industries, and with other service providers (Simeoni, 2005).Observation can also be taken as a tool to imitate and grasp the skills of masters in places where apprentices are assigned for apprenticeship training.

Career development theory

It is true that apprenticeship training can lead apprentices to identify an occupation and eventually to develop a career (Luecking, 2009). Once a person identifies his occupation, he may hold series of occupations, jobs and positions throughout his/her working life that lead him/her to develop a career (De lary,Duncan & Swarth, 2006).
This fact can be best explained using John Holland’s theory (as cited in De lary,Duncan & Swarth, 2006), which is found to be more applicable. The theory bases itself on what he calls the degree of fitness between the individual and the environment characteristics. In this regard, most people can be categorized into six personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising or conventional. As a result, our behavior is described by the way in which we relate ourselves to the environment. Accordingly, individuals are attracted to a particular occupation that meets their personal needs and provides them satisfaction.
The other contemporary theory that can describe career development is SCCT. This theory has grown out of Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory and attempts to address issues of culture, gender, genetic endowment, social context and unexpected life events that can relate career-related choices. The SCCT focuses on the connection of self-efficacy, outcome expectations and personal goals that influence an individual’s career choice. It differs from the majority of existing career theories in its dynamic nature. It focuses upon the role of the self-system and the individual’s beliefs. It also addresses the inherent influence of the social and economic contexts toward career choice (as cited in De lary, Duncan & Swarth, 2006).
People search for environments that let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and solve problems and perform roles well. People’s behavior can also be determined by the interaction between their personality and the environment they work in. Since career development theories are not static, various factors can also influence them. The attained level of development all over the world requires everyone to equip oneself in more than one occupation. Due to this, the current trend looks at the employment of people in special skills only for a certain period of time. Hence, people may be obliged to acquire more than one skill to base their life (Maree & Ebersohn, 2002).
Besides, its contribution to explain behavior in relation to the environment, the social learning theory has laid a foundation for one of the most interesting contemporary theories, the social cognitive career theory. According to this theory, once a person identifies his occupation, he may hold sequences of occupations and positions throughout his/her working life that lead him/her to career development (De lary,Duncan & Swarth, 2006). Besides, the most direct and powerful information about the world of work is drawn from actual work experience (Rusch & Chadsey, 1998).
The part of Bandura’s general social cognitive theory that attracted the greatest attention in career development is the concept of self-efficacy expectations. Bandura explains the concept by attaching with individuals who have positive beliefs. In their ability to do a task, people who have positive beliefs are more successful than the ones who have doubts in their abilities.
In view of this, Bandura has identified four sources of self-efficacy information (as cited in De lary, Duncan & Swarth, 2006) that foster the development of occupation. These are the following.
• Personal performance accomplishments that refer to direct success experience when confronted with a task. We expect individuals to develop interest in tasks where they have experienced success, and to avoid activities where they have experienced failure.
• Vicarious learning refers to the learning that takes place through observation. A person observes masters whom he considers as success achievers and avoids the ones whom he considers as failures.
• Physiological arousal refers to the physiological and anxiety level of people to accomplish a task. When people become anxious and physiologically aroused, their self-efficacy becomes low and the vice versa.
• Verbal persuasion refers to the verbal encouragement provided by people. This is considered as the weakest source of self- efficacy information as compared to the others. This is due to the fact that its effect is less powerful than direct success experiences or observation of appropriate model.
In general, it can be concluded that the social learning theory has interwoven itself with the internal cognitive influence of behavior, as well as on the observation of others and the environment in which behavior occurs (Fredrickson & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2009).
This research, therefore, made connections among the motivation of trainees, the experiences of supervisors, conditions in the enterprises and the TVETCs. These connections can help us to consider the factors that hinder apprentices in gaining knowledge, skill, attitude and future career in an occupation.
These efforts also enable to investigate the factors that influence the success of the apprenticeship training program. However, the researcher did not intend to investigate the factors that affect the application of the knowledge gained through apprenticeship training since application requires more time to see its effect.

Principles and Practices of Vocationalism

Vocationalism nowadays, refers to the application of the educational system to the needs of the economic system. It is more popular by its name ‘TVET’. It is, thus, used as a tool to design policies and practices to maximize the occupational values of schools (Furlong, 2009). However, in the early 20th century, there were debates among educators regarding its role in children’s future life. Dewey argued that vocational education should be designed to meet students’ needs rather than enterprises’ demands and should prepare learners for social life instead of specific occupational roles (Hyslop, 2000).
This idea was later criticized by Snedden and Prosser (as cited by Dow, 2002), who understood that school youth need a practical education leading to a trade or vocation. It was, thus, replaced by a new thought called the ‘new vocationalism.’ It differs from the old concept of vocationalism as it gives emphasis to students’ learning specific job skills for immediate job placement arranged with enterprises. Currently the ‘new vocationalism’ perceives the student as an active learner and the system as student-centered accomplished through the collaborative efforts of industrial society and the schools. This was not, in fact, consistent with Dewey’s view of vocational education as a process of thinking leading to intellectual and social growth (Dow, 2002).
Nevertheless, Dewey’s idea of vocationalism has enabled the current TVET system to establish its unique principles and practices of TVET regarding its implementation. In line with this, country specific principles and practices are being observed in countries of the world. For instance, TVET is provided in Ethiopia based on the principle of making TVET institutions as a center for technology transfer, a system of providing comprehensive and integrated TVET, a means of encouraging stakeholders’ involvement, a way of establishing public and private partnership, and a means of adapting outcome-based approach and decentralization (MoE,2008).
At the global level vocationalism is implemented with the main principle of partnership between government and non-government organizations. The principle can be shared among its partners. Accordingly, the principle for the industries may explain them to get the organization ready for the work integrated learning, contribute to curriculum design and facilitation and support staff. The principle for university may mean relationship building, curriculum design and facilitation and having good management (Choy & Delahaye, 2009).
In relation to this, the current TVET practice has shown that there are different types of strategies adapted for the provisions of vocationalism. These include; school based learning, work based learning and programs that suit the needs of exceptional students (Rusch & Chadsey, 1998; Cantor, 1997).

Analytical Framework for apprenticeship training

An application or illustration of the problems of apprenticeship training is based on the theoretical statement of observational theory, Vygotsky’s theory of ZPD, contextual learning theory, career development theories, the constructivist view of learning and vocationalism. The application of these theories may contain a set of auxiliary assumptions that can describe the environment and the conditions under which apprenticeship can take place. This effort may help us to explain the problems that hamper the implementation of apprenticeship training. It can, at the same time, help us for the interpretation of the research results (Skitmore & Runeson, 2006).
Based on the facts of apprenticeship training and on the factors that can affect apprentices’ imitation of the supervisors, the motivation and retention of apprentices’ skill during the process of apprenticeship training were thoroughly examined. The researcher views problems in apprenticeship training as a process determined by some direct forces that exert their distinctive influences on it. This is illustrated schematically as follows.

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF TABLES.
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ACRONYMS
CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Statement of the research problem
1.3 General objectives of the research
1.4 The main research question
1.5 Significance of the research
1.6 Research Delimitation
1.7 Research Limitation
1.9 Organization of the study
1.10 Description of the sample organizations
1.10 Synthesis
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 History in context
2.3 Trends in the provision of TVET program
2.4 The benefits of skill training in TVET program
2.5 The role of motivation in training
2.6 Epistemological issues in apprenticeship training
2.7 Implementation problems of apprenticeship training
2.8 Synthesis
CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK IN THE RESEARCH
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Vygotsky’s theory of the Zone of Proximal Development/ZPD/
3.3 Bandura’s Theory of imitation
3.4 Contextual, situated or connected learning
3.5 Career development theory
3.7 Analytical Framework for Apprenticeship Training
3.8 Synthesis
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introdction
4.2 The research design
4.3 Sampling procedure
4.4 Data analysis
4.5 Ethical issues
4.6 Synthesis
CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
5.1 Introduction
5.2 General consideration
5.3 The coding process
5.4 Summary of the Codes
5.5 Interpretation of the data
5.6 Synthesis
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Summary
6.2 Conclusion
6.3 Recommendations
6.4 Areas for further investigation
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